School of Humanities and Sciences
Showing 1-27 of 27 Results
-
Jeremy Bailenson
Thomas More Storke Professor, Senior Fellow at the Woods Institute for the Environment and Professor, by courtesy, of Education
On Leave from 10/01/2023 To 06/30/2024BioJeremy Bailenson is founding director of Stanford University’s Virtual Human Interaction Lab, Thomas More Storke Professor in the Department of Communication, Professor (by courtesy) of Education, Professor (by courtesy) Program in Symbolic Systems, and a Senior Fellow at the Woods Institute for the Environment. He has served as Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Communication for over a decade. He earned a B.A. from the University of Michigan in 1994 and a Ph.D. in cognitive psychology from Northwestern University in 1999. He spent four years at the University of California, Santa Barbara as a Post-Doctoral Fellow and then an Assistant Research Professor.
Bailenson studies the psychology of Virtual and Augmented Reality, in particular how virtual experiences lead to changes in perceptions of self and others. His lab builds and studies systems that allow people to meet in virtual space, and explores the changes in the nature of social interaction. His most recent research focuses on how virtual experiences can transform education, environmental conservation, empathy, and health. He is the recipient of the Dean’s Award for Distinguished Teaching at Stanford. In 2020, IEEE recognized his work with “The Virtual/Augmented Reality Technical Achievement Award”.
He has published more than 200 academic papers, spanning the fields of communication, computer science, education, environmental science, law, linguistics, marketing, medicine, political science, and psychology. His work has been continuously funded by the National Science Foundation for over 25 years.
His first book Infinite Reality, co-authored with Jim Blascovich, emerged as an Amazon Best-seller eight years after its initial publication, and was quoted by the U.S. Supreme Court. His new book, Experience on Demand, was reviewed by The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, Nature, and The Times of London, and was an Amazon Best-seller.
He has written opinion pieces for The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, Harvard Business Review, CNN, PBS NewsHour, Wired, National Geographic, Slate, The San Francisco Chronicle, TechCrunch, and The Chronicle of Higher Education, and has produced or directed six Virtual Reality documentary experiences which were official selections at the Tribeca Film Festival. His lab has exhibited VR in hundreds of venues ranging from The Smithsonian to The Superbowl. -
Robert Brenner
Lecturer
BioR.B. Brenner is a Lecturer in the Department of Communication. He returned to Stanford in 2018 after four years at the University of Texas at Austin, where he was a tenured full professor and director of the School of Journalism. He had been a Stanford Lecturer from 2010 to 2014.
His teaching is informed by a three-decade career as a reporter and editor. He held several prominent editing positions at The Washington Post, including Sunday Editor and Metro Editor. He was one of the primary editors of The Post’s coverage of the Virginia Tech shootings, which was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 2008, and played a leadership role in merging the digital and print newsrooms.
He has been a consultant for two journalism-themed films: “The Post” (2017) and “State of Play” (2009).
A graduate of Oberlin College, R.B. began his reporting career in North Carolina and also worked at newspapers in California and Florida. -
David Cheriton
Professor of Computer Science, Emeritus
BioCheriton's research includes the areas of high-performance distributed systems, and high-speed computer communication with a particular interest in protocol design. He leads the Distributed Systems Group in the TRIAD project, focused on understanding and solving problems with the Internet architecture. He has also been teaching and writing about object-oriented programming, building on his experience with OOP in systems building.
-
Angele Christin
Associate Professor of Communication and, by courtesy, of Sociology
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsAngèle Christin studies how algorithms and analytics transform professional values, expertise, and work practices.
Her book, Metrics at Work: Journalism and the Contested Meaning of Algorithms (Princeton University Press, 2020) focuses on the case of web journalism, analyzing the growing importance of audience data in web newsrooms in the U.S. and France. Drawing on ethnographic methods, Angèle shows how American and French journalists make sense of traffic numbers in different ways, which in turn has distinct effects on the production of news in the two countries. She discussed it on the New Books Network podcast.
In a related study, she analyzed the construction, institutionalization, and reception of predictive algorithms in the U.S. criminal justice system, building on her previous work on the determinants of criminal sentencing in French courts.
Her new project examines the paradoxes of algorithmic labor through a study of influencers and influencer marketing on YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok. -
Shane Denson
Associate Professor of Art and Art History and, by courtesy, of German Studies and of Communication
BioShane Denson is Associate Professor of Film and Media Studies in the Department of Art & Art History at Stanford University. His research and teaching interests span a variety of media and historical periods, including phenomenological and media-philosophical approaches to film, digital media, comics, games, and serialized popular forms. He is the author of three books: Post-Cinematic Bodies (2023), Discorrelated Images (2020) and Postnaturalism: Frankenstein, Film, and the Anthropotechnical Interface (2014). He is also co-editor of several collections: Transnational Perspectives on Graphic Narratives (2013), Digital Seriality (special issue of Eludamos: Journal for Computer Game Culture, 2014), and the open-access book Post-Cinema: Theorizing 21st-Century Film (2016).
See also shanedenson.com for more info. -
James Fishkin
Janet M. Peck Professor of International Communication, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science
BioJames S. Fishkin holds the Janet M. Peck Chair in International Communication at Stanford University where he is Professor of Communication, Professor of Political Science (by courtesy) and Director of the Deliberative Democracy Lab.
He received his B.A. from Yale in 1970 and holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from Yale as well as a second Ph.D. in Philosophy from Cambridge.
He is the author of Democracy When the People Are Thinking (Oxford 2018), When the People Speak (Oxford 2009), Deliberation Day (Yale 2004 with Bruce Ackerman) and Democracy and Deliberation (Yale 1991).
He is best known for developing Deliberative Polling® – a practice of public consultation that employs random samples of the citizenry to explore how opinions would change if they were more informed. His work on deliberative democracy has stimulated more than 100 Deliberative Polls in 28 countries around the world. It has been used to help governments and policy makers make important decisions in Texas, China, Mongolia, Japan, Macau, South Korea, Bulgaria, Brazil, Uganda and other countries around the world.
He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a Guggenheim Fellow, a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford, and a Visiting Fellow Commoner at Trinity College, Cambridge. -
Theodore L. Glasser
Professor of Communication, Emeritus
BioTed Glasser’s teaching and research focuses on media practices and performance, with emphasis on questions of press responsibility and accountability. His books include Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies, written with Clifford Christians, Denis McQuail, Kaarle Nordenstreng, and Robert White, which in 2010 won the Frank Luther Mott-Kappa Tau Alpha award for best research-based book on journalism/mass communication and was one of three finalists for the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s Tankard Book Award; The Idea of Public Journalism, an edited collection of essays, recently translated into Chinese;Custodians of Conscience: Investigative Journalism and Public Virtue, written with James S. Ettema, which won the Society of Professional Journalists’ award for best research on journalism, the Bart Richards Award for Media Criticism, and the Frank Luther Mott-Kappa Tau Alpha award for the best research-based book on journalism/mass communication; Public Opinion and the Communication of Consent, edited with Charles T. Salmon; and Media Freedom and Accountability, edited with Everette E. Dennis and Donald M. Gillmor. His research, commentaries and book reviews have appeared in a variety of publications, including the Journal of Communication, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, Journalism Studies, Policy Sciences, Journal of American History, Quill, Nieman Reports and The New York Times Book Review.
In 2002-2003 Glasser served as president of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. He had earlier served as a vice president and chair of the Mass Communication Division of the International Communication Association. He has held visiting appointments as a Senior Fulbright Scholar at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; as the Wee Kim Wee Professor of Communication Studies at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; and at the University of Tampere, Finland.
Glasser came to Stanford in 1990 from the University of Minnesota, where he taught in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication and served as associate director of the Silha Center for the Study of Media Ethics and Law. He has been affiliated with Stanford’s Modern Thought and Literature Program since 1993. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa. -
James Hamilton
Hearst Professor and Senior Fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMedia economics, journalism, economics of regulation
-
Gabriella M. Harari
Assistant Professor of Communication
BioGabriella Harari is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Stanford University, where she directs the Media and Personality Lab.
She studies how personality is expressed in the physical and digital contexts of everyday life. Much of her research is focused on understanding what digital technologies reveal about who we are, and how use of digital technologies shapes who we are. Her current projects analyze people’s everyday behavioral patterns (e.g., social interactions, mobility) and environmental contexts (e.g., places visited, social media platforms) to show how they are associated with individual differences in personality and well-being.
Harari takes an ecological approach to conducting her research, emphasizing the importance of studying people and their behavior in natural contexts. To that end, she conducts intensive longitudinal field studies and is interested in mobile sensing methods and analytic techniques that combine approaches from the social and computer sciences. For example, methodologies she uses in her work in include surveys, experience sampling, longitudinal modeling, mobile sensing, data mining, and machine learning.
Harari completed a Postdoctoral Fellowship and earned her PhD at the Department of Psychology at The University of Texas at Austin. She completed her BA in Psychology & Humanities from Florida International University, where she was also a Ronald E. McNair Scholar. Her work has been published in academic outlets such as Perspectives in Psychological Science, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and the Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies (IMWUT). Her work has also been supported by the National Science Foundation and Stanford HAI Seed Grant Awards. -
Shanto Iyengar
William Robertson Coe Professor and Professor of Political Science and of Communication
BioShanto Iyengar is a Professor of Political Science and Director of the Political Communication Laboratory. Iyengar’s areas of expertise include the role of mass media in democratic societies, public opinion, and political psychology. Iyengar’s research has been supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the Ford Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts, and the Hewlett Foundation. He is the recipient of several professional awards including the Philip Converse Award of the American Political Science Association for the best book in the field of public opinion, the Murray Edelman Lifetime Achievement Award, and the Goldsmith Book Prize from Harvard University. Iyengar is author or co-author of several books, including News That Matters (University of Chicago Press, 1987), Is Anyone Responsible? (University of Chicago Press, 1991), Explorations in Political Psychology (Duke University Press, 1995), Going Negative (Free Press, 1995), and Media Politics: A Citizen’s Guide (Norton, 2011).
-
Jon Krosnick
Frederic O. Glover Professor of Humanities and Social Sciences, Professor of Communication and of Political Science, at the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability and, by courtesy, of Psychology
BioJon Krosnick is a social psychologist who does research on attitude formation, change, and effects, on the psychology of political behavior, and on survey research methods. He is the Frederic O. Glover Professor in Humanities and Social Sciences, Professor of Communication, Political Science, and (by courtesy) Psychology. At Stanford, in addition to his professorships, he directs the Political Psychology Research Group and has directed the Summer Institute in Political Psychology.
To read reports on Professor Krosnick’s research program exploring public opinion on the environment, visit the Public Opinion on Climate Change web site.
Research Interests
Author of seven published books and two forthcoming books and more than 190 articles and chapters, Dr. Krosnick conducts research in three primary areas: (1) attitude formation, change, and effects, (2) the psychology of political behavior, and (3) the optimal design of questionnaires used for laboratory experiments and surveys, and survey research methodology more generally.
His attitude research has focused primarily on the notion of attitude strength, seeking to differentiate attitudes that are firmly crystallized and powerfully influential of thinking and action from attitudes that are flexible and inconsequential. Many of his studies in this area have focused on the amount of personal importance that an individual chooses to attach to an attitude. Dr. Krosnick’s studies have illuminated the origins of attitude importance (e.g., material self-interest and values) and the cognitive and behavioral consequences of importance in regulating attitude impact and attitude change processes.
Honors
Winner of the American Association for Public Opinion Research’s Lifetime Achievement Award for outstanding research, and the Nevitt Sanford Award from the International Society of Political Psychology, Dr. Krosnick’s scholarship has been recognized by election as a fellow by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Erik Erikson Award for Excellence and Creativity in the Field of Political Psychology from the International Society of Political Psychology, two fellowships at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, the Phillip Brickman Memorial Prize for Research in Social Psychology, and the American Political Science Association’s Best Paper Award. -
Geri Migielicz
Lecturer
BioGeri is the Lorry I. Lokey Visiting Professor of Professional Journalism at Stanford University, teaching multimedia and immersive journalism courses in the Stanford Graduate Program in Journalism.
Geri was Director of Photography at the San Jose Mercury News from 1993 to 2009. Under Geri’s tenure, the Mercury News won major awards for photo editing and multimedia, sustaining the paper as a leader and innovator in digital visual journalism.
Geri was executive producer of a 2007 national News and Documentary Emmy Award-winning web documentary, “Uprooted.” for the Mercury News. She was a newsroom leader for the coverage of the Loma Prieta earthquake awarded a 1990 Pulitzer Prize for General News Reporting for the Mercury News. She also edited the paper’s coverage of California’s recall election, a 2003 Pulitzer finalist in Feature Photography. Geri was a 2004-5 Knight Fellow at Stanford University, where she studied multimedia narratives. She is a 2013 inductee to the Missouri Photojournalism Hall of Fame.
She has served as visiting faculty at The Poynter Institute for Media Studies and has served as advisory board member for The Kalish workshop for photo editors. She has been faculty at the Missouri Photo Workshop and has presented at workshops for the Society of Newspaper Design, the National Press Photographers Association [NPPA] and the regional chapter of the National Association of Television Arts and Sciences. Geri has juried numerous professional and student multimedia and photojournalism contests -
Jennifer Pan
Sir Robert Ho Tung Professor of Chinese Studies, Professor of Communication, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science and of Sociology
BioJennifer Pan is a political scientist whose research focuses on political communication, digital media, and authoritarian politics. She is the Sir Robert Ho Tung Professor of Chinese Studies, Professor of Communication and (by courtesy) Political Science, and a Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute.
Dr. Pan's research uses experimental and computational methods with large-scale datasets on political activity to answer questions about the role of digital media in authoritarian and democratic politics, including how political censorship, propaganda, and information manipulation work in the digital age and how preferences and behaviors are shaped as a result. Her book, Welfare for Autocrats: How Social Assistance in China Cares for its Rulers (Oxford, 2020) shows how China's pursuit of political order transformed the country’s main social assistance program, Dibao. Her papers have appeared in peer reviewed publications such as the American Political Science Review, American Journal of Political Science, Journal of Politics, Political Communication, and Science.
She graduated from Princeton University, summa cum laude, and received her Ph.D. from Harvard University’s Department of Government. -
Gary M. Pomerantz
Lecturer
BioGary M. Pomerantz is a nonfiction author and journalist, and has served the past fifteen years as a lecturer in the Department of Communication at Stanford University.
His sixth and most recent book, The Last Pass, a New York Times bestseller about Bob Cousy and the storied Boston Celtics dynasty of the 1950s and sixties, is an intimate story about a basketball icon at ninety coming to terms with his racial regrets.
Pomerantz spent 17 years as a daily journalist, first as a sportswriter for The Washington Post where he covered Georgetown University basketball, and the National Football League, and later at The Atlanta Journal-Constitution where he wrote about race, sports, culture and politics, and served for a time on the newspaper’s editorial board.
His nonfiction books cover a wide array of topics. The first, Where Peachtree Meets Sweet Auburn, a multi-generational biography of Atlanta and its racial conscience, was named in 1996 a Notable Book of the Year by The New York Times. The book has been optioned and is currently in development as a period drama television series.
Nine Minutes, Twenty Seconds (2001), about an air crash, has been published in Britain, Germany and China, and was termed by The London Evening Standard “a flawlessly constructed narrative . . . a masterpiece of non-fiction storytelling.”
In 2005 he followed with WILT, 1962, a story about race, celebrity and basketball star Wilt Chamberlain’s legendary 100-point game. The book returned him to his sportswriting roots, and was an Editors’ Choice selection by The New York Times Book Review. The Devil’s Tickets (2009) is a narrative from the Roaring Twenties about a sensational killing and murder trial in Kansas City and the contract bridge craze that swept America. National Public Radio hailed it as “deliciously detailed and splendidly written.”
His fifth book, Their Life’s Work , a narrative about the 1970s Pittsburgh Steelers dynasty that examines football’s gifts and costs, was named a finalist for the 2014 PEN/ESPN Award for Literary Sports Writing.
A graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, with a bachelor’s degree in history, Pomerantz was named as a Journalism Fellow at the University of Michigan in 1987-88. Later he served from 1999-2001 as Distinguished Visiting Professor of Journalism at Emory University in Atlanta where he taught courses on news reporting and writing, and on the history of the American press. As a lecturer at Stanford, he has taught Communication 177SW/277S, Specialized Writing and Reporting: Sports Journalism, and Communication 104: Reporting, Writing and Understanding the News. In winter 2023, he will teach Communication 177SW/277S. -
Walter W. Powell
Jacks Family Professor and Professor, by courtesy, of Communication, of Sociology and of Organizational Behavior at the Graduate School of Business
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsPlease go to my webpage for more info on research:
https://woodypowell.com -
Nilam Ram
Professor of Communication and of Psychology
BioNilam Ram studies the dynamic interplay of psychological and media processes and how they change from moment-to-moment and across the life span.
Nilam’s research grows out of a history of studying change. After completing his undergraduate study of economics, he worked as a currency trader, frantically tracking and trying to predict the movement of world markets as they jerked up, down and sideways. Later, he moved on to the study of human movement, kinesiology, and eventually psychological processes - with a specialization in longitudinal research methodology. Generally, Nilam studies how short-term changes (e.g., processes such as learning, information processing, emotion regulation, etc.) develop across the life span, and how longitudinal study designs contribute to generation of new knowledge. Current projects include examinations of age-related change in children’s self- and emotion-regulation; patterns in minute-to-minute and day-to-day progression of adolescents’ and adults’ emotions; and change in contextual influences on well-being during old age. He is developing a variety of study paradigms that use recent developments in data science and the intensive data streams arriving from social media, mobile sensors, and smartphones to study change at multiple time scales. -
Byron Reeves
Paul C. Edwards Professor of Communication, Senior Fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy and Professor, by courtesy, of Education
BioByron Reeves, PhD, is the Paul C. Edwards Professor of Communication at Stanford and
Professor (by courtesy) in the Stanford School of Education. Byron has a long history of
experimental research on the psychological processing of media, and resulting responses and
effects. He has studied how media influence attention, memory and emotional responses and has
applied the research in the areas of speech dialogue systems, interactive games, advanced
displays, social robots, and autonomous cars. Byron has recently launched (with Stanford
colleagues Nilam Ram and Thomas Robinson) the Human Screenome Project (Nature, 2020),
designed to collect moment-by-moment changes in technology use across applications, platforms
and screens.
At Stanford, Byron has been Director of the Center for the Study of Language and Information,
and Co-Director of the H-STAR Institute (Human Sciences and Technologies Advanced
Research), and he was the founding Director of mediaX at Stanford, a university-industry
program launched in 2001 to facilitate discussion and research at the intersection of academic
and applied interests. Byron has worked at Microsoft Research and with several technology
startups, and has been involved with media policy at the FTC, FCC, US Congress and White
House. He is an elected Fellow of the International Communication Association, and recipient of ICA Fellows book award for The Media Equation (with Prof. Clifford Nass), and the Novim Foundation Epiphany Science and Society Award. Byron’s PhD in Communication is from Michigan State University. -
Donald Roberts
Thomas More Storke Professor, Emeritus
BioDonald Roberts received his A.B. from Columbia University (1961) and his M.A. from the University of California at Berkeley (1963). He earned his Ph.D. in communication at Stanford in 1968, then became a member of the department faculty, serving as Director of the Institute for Communication Research from 1985-1990 and from 1999-2001. He chaired the department from 1990-1996.
Roberts teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on communication theory and research and on children, youth, and media. His primary area of research concerns how children and adolescents use and respond to media, a topic on which he has written extensively (e.g., chapters in The Handbook of Communication, Learning from Television: Psychological and Education Research, The International Encyclopedia of Communications, The Handbook of Children and the Media,and The Handbook of Adolescent Psychology).
He has also written comprehensive reviews of the literature on the effects of mass communication for the Annual Review of Psychology and for the revised edition of the Handbook of Social Psychology, and co-authored a chapter on public opinion processes in the Handbook of Communication Science.
Roberts helped to design a parental advisory system to label violence, sex/nudity, and language for the computer software industry which has been adapted by the Internet Content Rating Association for use on the World Wide Web. He has spoken on the issue of content labeling and advisories internationally (e.g., Mexico, Korea, Australia, South Africa), and has published several articles dealing with content labeling.
He has consulted with a number of companies involved in producing children’s media (e.g., Filmation, ABC-Disney, MGM Animation, Sunbow Entertainment, Nelvana Ltd., and KidsWB!), and currently functions as Educational Director for DIC Entertainment, helping to develop content to meet the FCC’s requirements for educational programming for children. Roberts also served on the board of advisors of MediaScope, a nonprofit organization founded to promote constructive depictions of social issues in film, television, music, and video games, and was a planner and panelist for Vice President Al Gore’s Conference on Families and Media.
Roberts is co-editor of The Process and Effects of Mass Communication and co-author of Television and Human Behavior, It’s Not Only Rock and Roll: Popular Music in the Lives of Adolescents and Kids on Media in America: Patterns of Use at the Millennium. -
Serdar Tumgoren
Lecturer
BioSerdar Tumgoren teaches data journalism in the Stanford Graduate Journalism Program and is an associate director for Big Local News, a project at Stanford that fosters collaborative data journalism and provides tools and platforms to help local newsrooms extend their reach.
Prior to joining Stanford in 2018, Serdar worked at The Associated Press, The Washington Post and Congressional Quarterly, with a focus on political and election-related data and Web applications.
A graduate of Georgetown University, Serdar began his career as a local government reporter in California, Connecticut, and New Jersey.
He is passionate about open source tools and platforms that help journalists uncover data-driven stories. He co-founded the OpenElections project, a volunteer effort to gather and standardize U.S. election data, and created datakit, a customizable tool to help journalists simplify and standardize their data analysis workflows. -
Frederick Turner
Harry and Norman Chandler Professor of Communication, Akiko Yamazaki and Jerry Yang University Fellow in Undergraduate Education and Professor, by courtesy, of Art and Art History and of History
BioFred Turner’s research and teaching focus on media technology and cultural change. He is especially interested in the ways that emerging media have helped shape American life since World War II.
Turner is the author of three books: The Democratic Surround: Multimedia and American Liberalism from World War II to the Psychedelic Sixties; From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network and the Rise of Digital Utopianism; and Echoes of Combat: The Vietnam War in American Memory. His essays have tackled topics ranging from the rise of reality crime television to the role of the Burning Man festival in contemporary new media industries. They are available here: fredturner.stanford.edu/essays/.
Turner’s research has received a number of academic awards and has been featured in publications ranging from Science and the New York Times to Ten Zen Monkeys. It has also been translated into French, Spanish, German, Polish and Chinese.
Turner is also the Akiko Yamazaki and Jerry Yang University Fellow in Undergraduate Education. Before joining the faculty at Stanford, Turner taught Communication at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also worked as a freelance journalist for ten years, writing for the Boston Sunday Globe Magazine, the Boston Phoenix, and the Pacific News Service.
Turner earned his Ph.D. in Communication from the University of California, San Diego. He has also earned a B.A. in English and American Literature from Brown University and an M.A. in English from Columbia University. -
Janine Zacharia
Lecturer
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsInterested in new forms of foreign correspondence, how stories go viral, the intersection between technology/social media and national security. Middle East/Israel is my main area of reporting expertise.
