Thomas Lee
Professor of Electrical Engineering
Bio
Professor Lee's principal areas of professional interest include analog circuitry of all types, ranging from low-level DC instrumentation to high-speed RF communications systems. His present research focus is on CMOS RF integrated circuit design, and on extending operation into the terahertz realm.
Program Affiliations
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Stanford SystemX Alliance
Professional Education
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ScD, MIT (1990)
2024-25 Courses
- Advanced Circuit Techniques
EE 308 (Spr) - Circuits II
EE 101B (Spr) - High-Frequency Circuit Design Laboratory
EE 251 (Win) - Things about Stuff
EE 14N (Aut) -
Independent Studies (10)
- Graduate Independent Study
MATSCI 399 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Master's Research
MATSCI 200 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Master's Thesis and Thesis Research
EE 300 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Ph.D. Research
MATSCI 300 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Practical Training
MATSCI 299 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Special Studies and Reports in Electrical Engineering
EE 191 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Special Studies and Reports in Electrical Engineering
EE 391 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Special Studies and Reports in Electrical Engineering (WIM)
EE 191W (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Special Studies or Projects in Electrical Engineering
EE 190 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum) - Special Studies or Projects in Electrical Engineering
EE 390 (Aut, Win, Spr, Sum)
- Graduate Independent Study
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Prior Year Courses
2023-24 Courses
- Advanced Circuit Techniques
EE 308 (Spr) - Circuits II
EE 101B (Spr) - High-Frequency Circuit Design Laboratory
EE 251 (Win) - Things about Stuff
EE 14N (Aut)
2022-23 Courses
- Advanced Circuit Techniques
EE 308 (Spr) - An Intro to Making: What is EE
ENGR 40M (Aut) - High-Frequency Circuit Design Laboratory
EE 251 (Win) - Things about Stuff
EE 14N (Aut)
2021-22 Courses
- Advanced Circuit Techniques
EE 308 (Spr) - High-Frequency Circuit Design Laboratory
EE 251 (Win) - Things about Stuff
EE 14N (Aut)
- Advanced Circuit Techniques
Stanford Advisees
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Doctoral Dissertation Reader (AC)
West Foster, Jeongkyu Kim, Calvin Lin, Yuya Nishio, Zhechi Ye -
Doctoral Dissertation Advisor (AC)
Richelle Smith, Nicholas Vitale -
Master's Program Advisor
Zihan Chen, Ankush Dhawan, Aiden Duncanson, Jack Givhan, Chunsheng Ji, Ashutosh Kumar, Cheyu Lin, Quentin MacFarlane, Owen Ryan, Kerry Tu, Fengrui Zuo -
Doctoral (Program)
George Alexopoulos, West Foster, Oliver Pranis, Tejus Rao, Pumiao Yan, Yueming Zhuo
All Publications
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Quantum Computing Gate Emulation Using CMOS Oscillatory Cellular Neural Networks
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS II-EXPRESS BRIEFS
2024; 71 (10): 4541-4545
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2024.3397846
View details for Web of Science ID 001322634100020
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Differential Edge Modulation Signaling for Low-Energy, High-Speed Wireline Communication
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2023
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSI.2023.3279231
View details for Web of Science ID 001005749400001
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Polychronous Oscillatory Cellular Neural Networks for Solving Graph Coloring Problems
IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
2023; 4: 156-164
View details for DOI 10.1109/OJCAS.2023.3262204
View details for Web of Science ID 000965217900001
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Analysis and Design of a Tetrahedral Oscillator
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS II-EXPRESS BRIEFS
2022; 69 (1): 75-79
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2021.3097100
View details for Web of Science ID 000739632700019
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Hybrid Analysis and Simulation Methodology for Noise in Active Mixers
IEEE. 2022
View details for DOI 10.1109/MWSCAS54063.2022.9859447
View details for Web of Science ID 000861351300083
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Hybrid Frequency Domain Simulation Method to Speed-up Analysis of Injection Locked Oscillators
IEEE. 2021: 722-726
View details for DOI 10.1109/MWSCAS47672.2021.9531699
View details for Web of Science ID 000784758700167
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Modeling of Injection Locking in Neurons for Neuromorphic and Biomedical Systems
IEEE. 2021
View details for DOI 10.1109/ISCAS51556.2021.9401122
View details for Web of Science ID 000696765400069
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An Electronically Steerable Millimeter-Wave Reflectarray for Wireless Power Delivery
IEEE. 2020
View details for Web of Science ID 000656518200460
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A Simple Linear Time-Variant Theory of Superregeneration
IEEE. 2020
View details for Web of Science ID 000696570700254
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An Electronically Steerable Millimeter-Wave Reflectarray for Wireless Power Delivery
IEEE. 2020
View details for Web of Science ID 000656518200135
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An Electronically Steerable Millimeter-Wave Reflectarray for Wireless Power Delivery
IEEE. 2020: 514-517
View details for Web of Science ID 000656518200779
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Evaluating the Microwave Performance of Epidermal Electronics with Equivalent Transmission Line Modeling
IEEE. 2018
View details for Web of Science ID 000502126700018
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A 125 pJ/bit 5 mW 28 GHz Superregenerative Receiver with Automatic Gain Control and Energy Efficient Startup for Burst Mode IoE Applications
IEEE. 2018: 70–73
View details for Web of Science ID 000448159800016
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A Ka-Band Beamformer for Wireless Power Transfer to Body Area Networks
IEEE. 2018: 10–12
View details for Web of Science ID 000502126700082
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A Ka-Band Beamformer for Wireless Power Transfer to Body Area Networks
IEEE. 2018
View details for Web of Science ID 000502126700006
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Evaluating the Microwave Performance of Epidermal Electronics with Equivalent Transmission Line Modeling
IEEE. 2018: 40–42
View details for Web of Science ID 000502126700092
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A General Strategy for Stretchable Microwave Antenna Systems using Serpentine Mesh Layouts
ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS
2017; 27 (46)
View details for DOI 10.1002/adfm.201703059
View details for Web of Science ID 000417187200005
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Characterization of Stretchable Serpentine Microwave Devices for Wearable Electronics
IEEE. 2017: 207–10
View details for Web of Science ID 000425241500055
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A Phase-Interpolation and Quadrature-Generation Method Using Parametric Energy Transfer in CMOS
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2015; 62 (5): 1250-1259
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSI.2015.2407433
View details for Web of Science ID 000353887300005
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GPS Anti-Jam: A Simple Method of Single Antenna Null-Steering for Aerial Applications
INST NAVIGATION. 2015: 470–83
View details for Web of Science ID 000365398300032
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Terahertz Electronics: The Last Frontier
40th European Solid-State Circuit Conference (ESSCIRC)
IEEE. 2014: 30–34
View details for Web of Science ID 000349461900005
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Terahertz Electronics: The Last Frontier
IEEE. 2014: 30-34
View details for Web of Science ID 000348858100005
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A 0.96mW, 5.3-6.75GHz, Phase-Interpolation and Quadrature-Generation Method using Parametric Energy Transfer in 65nm CMOS
IEEE. 2014: 2145–48
View details for Web of Science ID 000346488600538
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Terahertz CMOS Integrated Circuits
IEEE International Symposium on Radio-Frequency Integration Technology (RFIT) - Silicon Technology Heats up for THz
IEEE. 2014
View details for Web of Science ID 000348665900031
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Single Antenna GPS Spoof Detection that is Simple, Static, Instantaneous and Backwards Compatible for Aerial Applications
INST NAVIGATION. 2014: 2233–42
View details for Web of Science ID 000356331203017
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Micro Barkhausen-Kurz Oscillators for Terahertz Integrated Systems
15th IEEE International Vacuum Electronics Conference
IEEE. 2014: 69–70
View details for Web of Science ID 000346166100029
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Terahertz Electronics: Opportunities, Challenges and Technologies
IEEE. 2013
View details for Web of Science ID 000393052900017
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A 3.1mW Phase-Tunable Quadrature-Generation Method for CEI 28G Short-Reach CDR in 28nm CMOS
IEEE. 2013: 412-+
View details for Web of Science ID 000366612300175
- Dark Secrets of RF Design IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Singapore Chapter, Singapore 2012
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Circuit-Based Characterization of Device Noise Using Phase Noise Data
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2010; 57 (6): 1265-1272
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSI.2009.2033535
View details for Web of Science ID 000281783800015
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CMOS Impedance Biosensor Array with Active Tone Cancellation for Simultaneous Impedance and Nonlinearity Measurement
International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC)
IEEE. 2010
View details for Web of Science ID 000287997200067
- The Return of the Empty State: Vacuum Nanoelectronics for Terahertz Applications 2010
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A 10Gb/s NRZ Receiver with Feedforward Equalizer and Glitch-Free Phase-Frequency Detector
35th European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC 2009)
IEEE. 2009: 373–376
View details for Web of Science ID 000276195800085
- When Silicon Valley was ‘Arc Alley 2009
- European Solid-State Circuits Conference, Athens, Greece 2009
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Crosstalk in Integrated Microarrays With Current Sensing
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2008; 55 (11): 3756-3762
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSI.2008.2002549
View details for Web of Science ID 000261847400037
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High-speed optical beam-steering based on phase-arrayed waveguides
52nd International Conference on Electron, Ion and Photon Beam Technology and Nanofabrication
A V S AMER INST PHYSICS. 2008: 2124–26
View details for DOI 10.1116/1.2978945
View details for Web of Science ID 000261385600052
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Optical spatial quantization for higher performance analog-to-digital conversion
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
2008; 56 (9): 2143-2150
View details for DOI 10.1109/TMTT.2008.2002230
View details for Web of Science ID 000259192500017
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Spatial Quantized Analog-to-Digital Conversion Based on Optical Beam-Steering
JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY
2008; 26 (13-16): 2219-2226
View details for DOI 10.1109/JLT.2008.922292
View details for Web of Science ID 000260874000057
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Wideband, low driving voltage traveling-wave Mach-Zehnder modulator for RF photonics
IEEE PHOTONICS TECHNOLOGY LETTERS
2008; 20 (5-8): 517-519
View details for DOI 10.1109/LPT.2008.918889
View details for Web of Science ID 000257952800064
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A system for multiplexed direct electrical detection of DNA synthesis
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS B-CHEMICAL
2008; 129 (1): 79-86
Abstract
An electronic system for the multiplexed detection of DNA polymerization is designed and characterized. DNA polymerization is detected by the measurement of small transient currents arising from ion diffusion during polymerization. A transimpedance amplifier is used to detect these small currents; we implemented a twenty-four channel recording system on a single printed circuit board. Various contributions to the input-referred current noise are analyzed and characterized, as it limits the minimum detectable current and thus the biological limit of detection. We obtained 8.5 pA RMS mean noise current (averaged over all 24 channels) over the recording bandwidth (DC to 2 kHz). With digital filtering, the input-referred current noise of the acquisition system is reduced to 2.4 pA, which is much lower than the biological noise. Electrical crosstalk between channels is measured, and a model for the crosstalk is presented. Minimizing the crosstalk is critical because it can lead to erroneous microarray data. With proper precautions, crosstalk is reduced to a negligible value (less than 1.4%). Using a micro-fabricated array of 24 gold electrodes, we demonstrated system functionality by detecting the presence of a target DNA oligonucleotide which hybridized onto its corresponding target.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.snb.2007.07.105
View details for Web of Science ID 000253172500013
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2344141
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A System for Multiplexed Direct Electrical Detection of DNA Synthesis.
Sensors and actuators. B, Chemical
2008; 129 (1): 79-86
Abstract
An electronic system for the multiplexed detection of DNA polymerization is designed and characterized. DNA polymerization is detected by the measurement of small transient currents arising from ion diffusion during polymerization. A transimpedance amplifier is used to detect these small currents; we implemented a twenty-four channel recording system on a single printed circuit board. Various contributions to the input-referred current noise are analyzed and characterized, as it limits the minimum detectable current and thus the biological limit of detection. We obtained 8.5 pA RMS mean noise current (averaged over all 24 channels) over the recording bandwidth (DC to 2 kHz). With digital filtering, the input-referred current noise of the acquisition system is reduced to 2.4 pA, which is much lower than the biological noise. Electrical crosstalk between channels is measured, and a model for the crosstalk is presented. Minimizing the crosstalk is critical because it can lead to erroneous microarray data. With proper precautions, crosstalk is reduced to a negligible value (less than 1.4%). Using a micro-fabricated array of 24 gold electrodes, we demonstrated system functionality by detecting the presence of a target DNA oligonucleotide which hybridized onto its corresponding target.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.snb.2007.07.105
View details for PubMedID 19183700
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2344141
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Optical switching based on high-speed phased array optical beam steering
APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS
2008; 92 (1)
View details for DOI 10.1063/1.2831005
View details for Web of Science ID 000252284200192
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Monolithic integration of GaAs/AlGaAs phase modulator and photodetector for RF photonics
Conference on Optical Fiber Communications/National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference
OPTICAL SOC AMERICA. 2008: 106–108
View details for Web of Science ID 000258857700036
- Monolithic integration of GaAs/AlGaAs phase modulator and photodetector for RF photonics 2008
- A System for Multiplexed Direct Electrical Detection of DNA Synthesis, Sensors & Actuators 2008; B 129: 79–86
- The Future of Wireless Technology in the Fourth age – The Internet of Things 2008
- Simultaneous Measurement of Nonlinearity and Electrochemical Impedance for Protein Sensing Using Two-Tone Excitation 2008
- Optical switching based on highspeed phased-array optical beam steering Applied Physics Letters 2008; 92
- High-speed optical beam-steering based on phased arrayed waveguides 2008
- A Label-free CMOS DNA Microarray based on Charge Sensing 2008
- RFIC Design & Implementation: An Introduction Plus IEEE short course, Singapore local Solid-State Circuits Society chapter, Singapore 2008
- A Low-verhead Fault Tolerance Scheme for TSV-based 3D Network on Chip Links 2008
- High-Power Tunable Terahertz Generation based on Photoconductive Antenna Arrays 2008
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Simultaneous Measurement of Nonlinearity and Electrochemical Impedance for Protein Sensing Using Two-Tone Excitation
30th Annual International Conference of the IEEE-Engineering-in-Medicine-and-Biology-Society
IEEE. 2008: 5753–5756
Abstract
Impedance biosensors detect the binding of a target to an immobilized probe by quantifying changes in the impedance of the electrode-electrolyte interface. The interface's I-V relationship is inherently nonlinear, varying with DC bias, and target binding can alter the degree of nonlinearity. We propose and demonstrate a method to simultaneously measure the nonlinearity and conventional small-signal impedance using intermodulation products from a two-tone input. Intermodulation amplitudes accurately reflect the impedance's manually-measured voltage dependence. We demonstrate that changes in nonlinearity can discriminate protein binding. Our measurements suggest that target binding can alter nonlinearity via the voltage dependence of the ionic double layer.
View details for Web of Science ID 000262404503237
View details for PubMedID 19164024
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High-Power Tunable Terahertz Generation based on Photoconductive Antenna Arrays
2008 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest
IEEE. 2008: 390–393
View details for Web of Science ID 000262480000098
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Prospect of Ballistic CNFET in High Performance Applications: Modeling and Analysis
ACM JOURNAL ON EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN COMPUTING SYSTEMS
2007; 3 (3)
View details for DOI 10.1145/1295231.1295233
View details for Web of Science ID 000207047100002
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3-D nanoarchitectures with carbon nanotube mechanical switches for future on-chip network beyond CMOS architecture
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2007; 54 (11): 2472-2479
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSI.2007.907882
View details for Web of Science ID 000250992900015
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"A general theory of phase noise in electrical oscillators" - Response
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2007; 42 (10): 2315-2315
View details for Web of Science ID 000249959300027
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Impact of a process variation on nanowire and nanotube device performance
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES
2007; 54 (9): 2369-2376
View details for DOI 10.1109/TED.2007.901882
View details for Web of Science ID 000249104900030
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An analytical compact circuit model for nanowire FET
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES
2007; 54 (7): 1637-1644
View details for DOI 10.1109/TED.2007.899397
View details for Web of Science ID 000247643800007
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High-frequency noise in nanoscale metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
2007; 101 (12)
View details for DOI 10.1063/1.2740345
View details for Web of Science ID 000247625700125
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Optical Spatially Quantized High Performance Analog-to-digital Conversion
Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference
IEEE. 2007: 987–988
View details for Web of Science ID 000268751000496
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A circuit-based noise parameter extraction technique for MOSFETs
IEEE. 2007: 3347-+
View details for DOI 10.1109/ISCAS.2007.378228
View details for Web of Science ID 000251608404106
- A 10Gb/s Equalizer with Decision Feedback for High Speed Serial Links 2007
- The History of the Integrated Circuit: A Random Walk 2007
- Engineering Perspectives on Alternative Energy 2007
- From Oxymoron to Mainstream: The Evolution and Future of RF CMOS 2007
- Optical Spatially Quantized High Performance Analog-to-digital Conversion 2007
- RFID: Status, Promise and Challenges 2007
- Oscillator Phase Noise Santa Clara Valley IEEE Solid State Circuits Society (SSCS) Chapter Program, RFIC Design Short Course, Santa Clara, CA 2007
- Phase Noise in Oscillators 2007
- 3D Nanoarchitectures with Carbon Nanotube Mechanical Switches for Future On-Chip Network Beyond CMOS Architecture IEEE TCA S-I Special Issue: Nanoarchitecture 2007
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A 10Gb/s equalizer with decision feedback for high speed serial links
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference
IEEE. 2007: 285–288
View details for Web of Science ID 000252233200065
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From oxymoron to mainstream: The evolution and future of RF CMOS
IEEE International Workshop on Radio-Frequency Integration Technology
IEEE. 2007: 1–6
View details for Web of Science ID 000252739400001
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High-voltage-tolerant I/O circuit design for USB 2.0-compliant applications
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference
IEEE. 2007: 491–494
View details for Web of Science ID 000252233200110
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Traveling wave spatial quantized analog-to-digital conversion
IEEE/MTT-S International Microwave Symposium
IEEE. 2007: 225–228
View details for Web of Science ID 000250827400052
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Ordered and chaotic electrical solitons: Communication perspectives
IEEE COMMUNICATIONS MAGAZINE
2006; 44 (12): 126-135
View details for Web of Science ID 000242690100017
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A programmable 0.18-mu m CMOS electrochemical sensor microarray for biomolecular detection
IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL
2006; 6 (6): 1380-1388
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSEN.2006.883904
View details for Web of Science ID 000242389400005
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A 1.5-v, 1.5-GHz CMOS low noise amplifier (vol 40, pg 1397, 2005)
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2006; 41 (10): 2359-2359
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2006.882679
View details for Web of Science ID 000240697600020
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Impact of geometry-dependent parasitic capacitances on the performance of CNFET circuits
IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS
2006; 27 (5): 380-382
View details for DOI 10.1109/LED.2006.873380
View details for Web of Science ID 000237602300023
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Direct electrical detection of DNA synthesis
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
2006; 103 (17): 6466-6470
Abstract
Rapid, sequence-specific DNA detection is essential for applications in medical diagnostics and genetic screening. Electrical biosensors that use immobilized nucleic acids are especially promising in these applications because of their potential for miniaturization and automation. Current DNA detection methods based on sequencing by synthesis rely on optical readouts; however, a direct electrical detection method for this technique is not available. We report here an approach for direct electrical detection of enzymatically catalyzed DNA synthesis by induced surface charge perturbation. We discovered that incorporation of a complementary deoxynucleotide (dNTP) into a self-primed single-stranded DNA attached to the surface of a gold electrode evokes an electrode surface charge perturbation. This event can be detected as a transient current by a voltage-clamp amplifier. Based on current understanding of polarizable interfaces, we propose that the electrode detects proton removal from the 3'-hydroxyl group of the DNA molecule during phosphodiester bond formation.
View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.0601184103
View details for Web of Science ID 000237151000011
View details for PubMedID 16614066
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC1458907
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Device physics - Electrical solitons come of age
NATURE
2006; 440 (7080): 36-37
View details for DOI 10.1038/440036a
View details for Web of Science ID 000235685700030
View details for PubMedID 16511480
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Modeling and analysis of circuit performance of ballistic CNFET
43rd Design Automation Conference
ASSOC COMPUTING MACHINERY. 2006: 717–722
View details for Web of Science ID 000240104100141
- The Past and Future of the Integrated Circuit 2006
- A Programmable 0.18-μm CMOS Electrochemical Sensor Microarray for Biomolecular Detection IEEE Sensors Journal 2006; 6-6: 1380-1388
- Candidate THz Sources: The History and Future of Velocity-Modulated Devices Photonics West, San Jose, CA 2006
- RF ID: Promise and Challenges 2006
- Novel architecture based on floating gate CNT-NEMS switches and its application to 3D on-chip bus beyond CMOS architecture 2006
- 3D on-chip networking technology based on post-Silicon devices for Future Network on Chip 2006
- Coupled Inverter Ring I/Q Oscillator for Low Power Frequency Synthesis 2006
- Ordered and Chaotic Electrical Solitons: Communication Perspectives, IEEE Communications Magazine 2006; 44 (12): 126-135
- Device Physics: Electrical Solitons Come of Age Nature 2006; 440: 36-37
- Things about stuff MESA Community Colleges Statewide Day, Noe Lozano 2006
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Candidate THz sources: the history and future (?) of velocity-modulated devices
Conferernce on Terahertz and Gigahertz Electronics and Photonics V
SPIE-INT SOC OPTICAL ENGINEERING. 2006
View details for DOI 10.1117/12.660967
View details for Web of Science ID 000237272700012
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3D on-chip networking technology based on post-silicon devices for future networks-on-chip.
1st International Conference on Nano-Networks and Workshops
IEEE. 2006: 105–109
View details for Web of Science ID 000245713500021
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A 17-mW 0.66-mm(2) direct-conversion receiver for 1-Mb/s cable replacement
IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC 2005)
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2005: 2547–54
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2005.857422
View details for Web of Science ID 000233661800019
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Monolithic integrated millimeter-wave IMPATT transmitter in standard CMOS technology
IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2005: 3557–61
View details for DOI 10.1109/TMTT.2005.858379
View details for Web of Science ID 000233122300036
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Comprehensive study of noise processes in electrode electrolyte interfaces (vol 96, pg 1074, 2004)
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
2005; 98 (6)
View details for DOI 10.1063/1.2040708
View details for Web of Science ID 000232226000100
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Bioluminescence regenerative cycle (BRC) system: Theoretical considerations for nucleic acid quantification assays
BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
2005; 116 (3): 175-185
Abstract
A novel application of bioluminescence for nucleic acid quantification, the bioluminescence regenerative cycle (BRC), is described in theoretical terms and supported by preliminary experimental data. In the BRC system, pyrophosphate (PPi) molecules are released during biopolymerization and are counted and correlated to DNA copy number. The enzymes ATP-sulfurylase and firefly luciferase are employed to generate photons quantitatively from PPi. Enzymatic unity-gain positive feedback is implemented to amplify photon generation and to compensate for decay in light intensity by self-regulation. The cumulative total of photons can be orders of magnitude higher than in typical chemiluminescent processes. A system level theoretical model is developed, taking into account the kinetics of the regenerative cycle, contamination, and detector noise. Data and simulations show that the photon generation process achieves steady state for the time range of experimental measurements. Based on chain reaction theory, computations show that BRC is very sensitive to variations in the efficiencies of the chemical reactions involved and less sensitive to variations in the quantum yield of the process. We show that BRC can detect attomolar quantities of DNA (10(-18) mol), and that the useful dynamic range is five orders of magnitude. Sensitivity is not constrained by detector performance but rather by background bioluminescence caused by contamination by either PPi or ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.bpc.2005.04.002
View details for Web of Science ID 000230717400001
View details for PubMedID 15882922
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2096776
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A 1.5-V, 1.5-GHz CMOS low noise amplifier (vol 32, pg 745, 1997)
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2005; 40 (6): 1397-1398
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2005.848626
View details for Web of Science ID 000229447900020
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Biological shot-noise and quantum-limited signal-to-noise ratio in affinity-based biosensors
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
2005; 97 (8)
View details for DOI 10.1063/1.1861970
View details for Web of Science ID 000228729500113
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An analytical formulation of phase noise of signals with Gaussian-distributed jitter
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS II-EXPRESS BRIEFS
2005; 52 (3): 149-153
View details for DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2004.842038
View details for Web of Science ID 000227829700008
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Minimum achievable phase noise of RC oscillators
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2005; 40 (3): 630-637
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2005.843591
View details for Web of Science ID 000227711600007
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A high dynamic range programmable CMOS front-end filter with a tuning range from 1850 to 2400 MHz
21st NORCHIP Conference
SPRINGER. 2005: 55–64
View details for Web of Science ID 000223983300007
- A Programmable Electrochemical Biosensor Array in 0.18µm Standard CMOS 2005
- Biological Shot-noise and Quantum-Limited SNR in Affinity-Based Biosensor Journal of Applied Physics 2005; 97 (84701): 8
- A 17.1mW, 0.66mm2, Direct Conversion Receiver for 1Mb/s Cable Replacement 2005
- A 77GHz Monolithic IMPATT Transmitter in Standard CMOS Technology 2005
- A Constant-Frequency Method for Improving Light-Load Efficiency in Synchronous Buck Converters IEEE Power Electronics Letters 2005; 3: 24-29
- First-Hand Tales of Successful Entrepreneurs MIT Club Semiconductor Program 2005
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Comprehensive study of noise processes in electrode electrolyte interfaces
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS
2004; 96 (2): 1074-1082
View details for DOI 10.1063/1.1755429
View details for Web of Science ID 000222391500021
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A multiply-by-3 coupled-ring oscillator for low-power frequency synthesis
Symposium on VLSI Circuits
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2004: 709–13
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2004.825248
View details for Web of Science ID 000220536700021
- Feedback Linearization of RF Power Amplifiers Kluwer Academic Press. 2004
- Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) Estimator for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Processes 2004
- Effects of Scaling on the SNR and Speed of Biosensors 2004
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Effects of scaling on the SNR and speed of biosensors.
Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Conference
2004; 4: 2549-2552
Abstract
This work presents a stochastic model for the observed signal of biosensors, a model that predicts the signal fluctuation of the system and the SNR associated with it using a Markov chain process. In the process, transition probabilities are derived from the target and probe binding kinetics in view of statistical motion and random walk events. Based on this model, we are able to estimate the settling time, power-spectral density (PSD), and signal to noise ratio (SNR) of general affinity-based biosensors. The effects of scaling from macroscopic to microscopic regimes are also studied, which indicate a fundamental tradeoff between settling time (speed) and signal fluctuation (noise). The model is also applied to analyze the behavior of a DNA hybridization electronic detector.
View details for PubMedID 17270793
- Planar Microwave Engineering Cambridge University Press. 2004
- Novel Functional Logic Circuits Based on 3D Emerging Memory Cells 3-D Architectures for Semiconductor Integration and Packaging – Understanding the Impact on Materials, Processes, and Markets, Burlingame, CA 2004
- Lateral IMPATT Diodes in Standard CMOS Technology International Electron Devices Meeting Technical Digest, San Francisco, CA 2004
- Close-in Phase Noise in Electrical Oscillators 2004
- A Comprehensive Study of Noise Processes in Electrode-electrolyte Interfaces Journal of Applied Physics 2004; 96: 1074-1082
- Wireless Transceiver Building Blocks Stanford Engineering & Science Institute short course 2004
- Effects of Scaling on the SNR and Speed of Biosensors 2004
- A Stochastic Model and Simulation Algorithm for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Systems 2004
- High Dynamic Range Programmable CMOS Front-End Filter with a Tuning Range from 1850 to 2400 Mhz Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing 2004; 42: 55-63
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Automatic phase alignment for a fully integrated Cartesian feedback power amplifier system
IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2003: 2269–79
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2003.819090
View details for Web of Science ID 000187569900028
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Volumetric ultrasound Imaging using 2-D CMUT arrays
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ULTRASONICS FERROELECTRICS AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
2003; 50 (11): 1581-1594
Abstract
Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as a candidate to overcome the difficulties in the realization of 2-D arrays for real-time 3-D imaging. In this paper, we present the first volumetric images obtained using a 2-D CMUT array. We have fabricated a 128 x 128-element 2-D CMUT array with through-wafer via interconnects and a 420-microm element pitch. As an experimental prototype, a 32 x 64-element portion of the 128 x 128-element array was diced and flip-chip bonded onto a glass fanout chip. This chip provides individual leads from a central 16 x 16-element portion of the array to surrounding bondpads. An 8 x 16-element portion of the array was used in the experiments along with a 128-channel data acquisition system. For imaging phantoms, we used a 2.37-mm diameter steel sphere located 10 mm from the array center and two 12-mm-thick Plexiglas plates located 20 mm and 60 mm from the array. A 4 x 4 group of elements in the middle of the 8 x 16-element array was used in transmit, and the remaining elements were used to receive the echo signals. The echo signal obtained from the spherical target presented a frequency spectrum centered at 4.37 MHz with a 100% fractional bandwidth, whereas the frequency spectrum for the echo signal from the parallel plate phantom was centered at 3.44 MHz with a 91% fractional bandwidth. The images were reconstructed by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches and visualized by surface rendering and multiplanar slicing techniques. The image of the spherical target has been used to approximate the point spread function of the system and is compared with theoretical expectations. This study experimentally demonstrates that 2-D CMUT arrays can be fabricated with high yield using silicon IC-fabrication processes, individual electrical connections can be provided using through-wafer vias, and flip-chip bonding can be used to integrate these dense 2-D arrays with electronic circuits for practical 3-D imaging applications.
View details for Web of Science ID 000187162500021
View details for PubMedID 14682642
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A unified model for injection-locked frequency dividers
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2003; 38 (6): 1015-1027
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2003.811975
View details for Web of Science ID 000183267800019
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A multiply-by-3 coupled-ring oscillator for low-power frequency synthesis
Symposium on VLSI Circuits
JAPAN SOCIETY APPLIED PHYSICS. 2003: 189–192
View details for Web of Science ID 000185582200051
- 512-Mb PROM with a Three-dimensional Array of Diode/antifuse Memory Cells IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuit 2003; 38: 1920-1928
- Lumped, Inductorless Oscillators: How Far Can They Go? 2003
- Bioluminescence Regenerative Cycle (BRC) system for Nucleic Acid Quantification Assays 2003
- Completely DC-free Direct Sequence Spectrum Spreading Scheme for Low Power, Low Cost, Direct Conversion Transceiver 2003
- Automatic Phase Alignment for a Fully Integrated CMOS Cartesian Feedback Power Amplifier System 2003
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Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers: Next-generation arrays for acoustic imaging?
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ULTRASONICS FERROELECTRICS AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
2002; 49 (11): 1596-1610
Abstract
Piezoelectric materials have dominated the ultrasonic transducer technology. Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as an alternative technology offering advantages such as wide bandwidth, ease of fabricating large arrays, and potential for integration with electronics. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the viability of CMUTs for ultrasound imaging. We present the first pulse-echo phased array B-scan sector images using a 128-element, one-dimensional (1-D) linear CMUT array. We fabricated 64- and 128-element 1-D CMUT arrays with 100% yield and uniform element response across the arrays. These arrays have been operated in immersion with no failure or degradation in performance over the time. For imaging experiments, we built a resolution test phantom roughly mimicking the attenuation properties of soft tissue. We used a PC-based experimental system, including custom-designed electronic circuits to acquire the complete set of 128 x 128 RF A-scans from all transmit-receive element combinations. We obtained the pulse-echo frequency response by analyzing the echo signals from wire targets. These echo signals presented an 80% fractional bandwidth around 3 MHz, including the effect of attenuation in the propagating medium. We reconstructed the B-scan images with a sector angle of 90 degrees and an image depth of 210 mm through offline processing by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches. The measured 6-dB lateral and axial resolutions at 135 mm depth were 0.0144 radians and 0.3 mm, respectively. The electronic noise floor of the image was more than 50 dB below the maximum mainlobe magnitude. We also performed preliminary investigations on the effects of crosstalk among array elements on the image quality. In the near field, some artifacts were observable extending out from the array to a depth of 2 cm. A tail also was observed in the point spread function (PSF) in the axial direction, indicating the existence of crosstalk. The relative amplitude of this tail with respect to the mainlobe was less than -20 dB.
View details for Web of Science ID 000179224100016
View details for PubMedID 12484483
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A noise optimization technique for integrated low-noise amplifiers
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2002; 37 (8): 994-1002
View details for DOI 10.1109/JSSC.2002.800956
View details for Web of Science ID 000177051200004
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Exploiting CMOS reverse interconnect scaling in multigigahertz amplifier and oscillator design (vol 36, pg 1480, 2001)
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2002; 37 (2): 255-255
View details for Web of Science ID 000173734300018
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A vertical leap for microchips
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
2002; 286 (1): 52-59
View details for Web of Science ID 000172967700029
View details for PubMedID 11799618
- Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer Arrays for Acoustic Imaging IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics Ferroelectronics and Frequency Control 2002; 49: 1596-1610
- Volumetric Ultrasound Imaging Using 2-D Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer Arrays (CMUTs): Initial Results 2002
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Special issue on silicon-based RF and microwave integrated circuits - Guest editorial
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
2002; 50 (1): 233-234
View details for Web of Science ID 000175337200001
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5-GHz CMOS wireless LANs
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES
2002; 50 (1): 268-280
View details for Web of Science ID 000175337200005
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Exploiting CMOS reverse interconnect scaling in multigigahertz amplifier and oscillator design
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
2001; 36 (10): 1480-1488
View details for Web of Science ID 000171192400006
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Measuring and modeling the effects of substrate noise on the LNA for a CMOS GPS receiver
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2001: 473–85
View details for Web of Science ID 000167423000019
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Physical origin of the excess thermal noise in short channel MOSFETs
IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS
2001; 22 (2): 101-103
View details for Web of Science ID 000167074000018
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Optimal allocation of local feedback in multistage amplifiers via geometric programming
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS I-REGULAR PAPERS
2001; 48 (1): 1-11
View details for Web of Science ID 000166993700001
- Multi-GHz Frequency Synthesis and Division Kluwer Academic Press. 2001
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Optimal design of a CMOS op-amp via geometric programming
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
2001; 20 (1): 1-21
View details for Web of Science ID 000167206200001
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An accurate and efficient high frequency noise simulation technique for deep submicron MOSFETs
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES
2000; 47 (12): 2410-2419
View details for Web of Science ID 000165561900027
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CMOS RF integrated circuits at 5 GHz and beyond
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE
2000; 88 (10): 1560-1571
View details for Web of Science ID 000165853300004
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Distributed ESD protection for high-speed integrated circuits
IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS
2000; 21 (8): 390-392
View details for Web of Science ID 000088465000007
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A 0.3-mu m CMOS 8-Gb/s 4-PAM serial link transceiver
Symposium on VLSI Circuits
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2000: 757–64
View details for Web of Science ID 000087046400013
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Bandwidth extension in CMOS with optimized on-chip inductors
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 2000: 346–55
View details for Web of Science ID 000086290700007
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The equivalence of van der Ziel and BSIM4 models in modeling the induced gate noise of MOSFETs
IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM)
IEEE. 2000: 811–814
View details for Web of Science ID 000166855900186
- Measuring and Modeling the Effects of Substrate Noise on the LNS for a CMOS GPS Receiver 2000
- Automatic Phase Alignment for High Bandwidth Cartesian Feedback Power Amplifiers 2000
- Oscillator Phase Noise: A Tutorial IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 2000; 35: 326-336
- Circuit Techniques for CMOS RF ICs 2000
- CMOS RF Integrated Circuits at 5GHz and Beyond 2000
- A CMOS Frequency Synthesizer with an Injection-Locked Frequency Divider for a 5-GHz Wireless LAN Receiver IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 2000; 35: 780-787
- Optimal Allocation of Local Feedback in Multistage Amplifiers via Geometric Programming 2000
- CMOS RF Integrated Circuits at 5GHz and Beyond 2000
- A 5-GHz CMOS Wireless LAN Receiver Front End IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 2000; 35: 765-772
- A 0.3-µm CMOS 8-Gb/s 4-PAM Serial Link Transceiver IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 2000; 35: 757-764
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Guidelines for the power constrained design of a CMOS tuned LNA
International Conference on Simulation of Semiconductor Processes and Devices
IEEE. 2000: 269–272
View details for Web of Science ID 000166421700067
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Simple accurate expressions for planar spiral inductances
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
1999; 34 (10): 1419-1424
View details for Web of Science ID 000082884000013
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A portable digital DLL for high-speed CMOS interface circuits
Symposium on VLSI Circuits
IEEE-INST ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS INC. 1999: 632–44
View details for Web of Science ID 000080039500010
- Jitter and Phase Noise in Ring Oscillators IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1999; 34: 790-804
- RF Noise Simulation for Submicron MOSFETs Based on Hydrodynamic Model 1999
- A 5GHz, 1mW CMOS Voltage-Controlled Differential Injection-Locked Frequency Divider 1999
- Superharmonic Injection-Locked Frequency Dividers IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1999; 34: 813-821
- Design Issues in CMOS Differential LC Oscillators IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1999; 34: 717-724
- Phase Noise in Oscillators: A Tutorial 1999
- A Linear, Time-Varying Theory of Phase Noise in Oscillators 1999
- A 0.3mm CMOS 8Gb/s 4-PAM Serial Link Transceiver 1999
- Issues in High Frequency Noise Simulation for Deep Submicron MOSFETs 1999
- Low-Power Dividerless Frequency Synthesis Using Aperture Phase Detection IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1999; 33: 2232-2239
- Monolithic CMOS Distributed Amplifier and Oscillator 1999
- GPCAD: A Tool for CMOS Op-Amp Synthesis 1999
- CMOS RF: (Still) No Longer an Oxymoron 1999
- A 2.125 Gbaud 1.6kΩ Transimpedance Preamplifier in 0.5µm CMOS 1999
- A 12.4mW CMOS Front-End for a 5GHz Wireless-LAN Receiver 1999
- Design and Optimization of LC Oscillators 1999
- RF Passive IC Components in The VLSI Handbook edited by Chen, W. CRC Press. 1999: 1
- A 0.4-µm CMOS 10-Gb/s 4-PAM Pre-emphasis Serial Link Transmitter IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1999; 34: 580-585
- A 5GHz, 32mW CMOS Frequency Synthesizer with an Injection-Locked Frequency Divider 1999
- Optimal Design of a CMOS Op-amp via Geometric Programming Applied and Computational Control, Signals and Circuits Birkhauser. 1999: 1
- Optimization of Inductor Circuits via Geometric Programming 1999
- The Design of Low Noise Oscillators Kluwer Academic Press. 1999
- The Design and Implementation of Low-Power CMOS Radio Receivers Kluwer Academic Press. 1999
- Phase Noise in CMOS Differential LC Oscillators 1998
- Ultra-Low Resistance, Through-Wafer Via (TWV) Technology and its Applications in Three Dimensional Structures on Silicon Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Part 1, Hiroshima, Japan 1998; 38: 2393-2396
- A Portable Digital DLL Architecture for CMOS Interface Circuits 1998
- Superharmonic Injection Locked Oscillators as Low Power Frequency Dividers 1998
- The Design of CMOS Low-Noise Amplifiers 1998
- A General Theory of Phase Noise in Oscillators IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1998; 33: 179-194
- Automated Design of Folded-Cascode Op-Amps with Sensitivity Analysis 1998
- Fractal Capacitors IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1998; 33: 2035-2041
- A 115mW, 0.5-µm CMOS GPS Receiver with Wide Dynamic-Range Active Filters IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1998; 33: 2219-2231
- Analysis and Optimization of Accumulation-Mode Varactor for RF ICs 1998
- Low Phase Noise Ring Oscillators for Frequency Synthesis 1998
- Fractal Capacitors 1998
- A 115mW CMOS GPS Receiver 1998
- 50-GHz Interconnect Design in Standard Silicon Technology 1998
- A 0.4µm CMOS 10-Gb/s 4-PAM Pre-Emphasis Serial Link Transmitter 1998
- A 1.4-GHz 3-mW CMOS LC Low Phase Noise VCO Using Tapped Bond Wire Inductances 1998
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Modeling and characterization of on-chip transformers
International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM)
IEEE. 1998: 531–534
View details for Web of Science ID 000078581800123
- CMOS VCOs for Frequency Synthesis in Wireless Biotelemetry 1998
- Recent Progress in CMOS RF Integrated Circuits 1998
- Circuit Techniques in a 266-MHz MMX-Enabled Processor IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1997; 32: 1650-1664
- A 12-mW Wide Dynamic Range CMOS Front-End for a Portable GPS Receiver IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1997; 32: 2061-2070
- A 12mW Wide Dynamic Range CMOS Front-End for a Portable GPS Receiver 1997
- A 1.5mW, 200MHz CMOS VCO for Wireless Telemetry 1997
- A 1.5V, 1.5 GHz CMOS Low-Noise Amplifier IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1997; 32: 745-759
- CMOS RF: No Longer an Oxymoron 1997
- An X86 Microprocessor with Multi-Media Extensions 1997
- RF Linearity of Short-Channel MOSFETs 1997
- Physical Modeling of Enhanced High-Frequency Drain and Gate Current Noise in Short-Channel MOSFETs 1997
- The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits Cambridge University Press. 1997
- An Equalization Scheme for 10Gb/s 4PAM Signaling over Long Cables 1997
- CMOS RF: No Longer an Oxymoron 1997
- A 155MHz Delay- and Phase-Locked Loop Monolithic Phase-Locked Loops edited by Razavi, B. IEEE Press. 1997: 1
- CMOS Operational Amplifier Design and Optimization via Geometric Programming 1997
- A 1.6GHz 0.5mW CMOS LC Low Phase Noise VCO Using Bond Wire Inductance 1997
- A 600MHz Superscalar RISC Microprocessor with Out-of-Order Execution 1997
- A 160MHz 32b 0.5W CMOS RISC Microprocessor IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1996; 31: 1703-1714
- A 1.5V, 1.5 GHz CMOS Low-Noise Amplifier 1996
- A Physical Model for Spiral Inductors on Silicon International Electron Devices Meeting Technical Digest, San Francisco, CA 1996
- A 1.5V, 1.5 GHz CMOS Low-Noise Amplifier 1996
- A 160MHz 32b 0.5W CMOS RISC Microprocessor 1996
- A 2.5V Delay-Locked Loop for an 18Mbit, 500MByte/sec DRAM IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1994; 29: 1491-1496
- A 2.5V Delay-Locked Loop for an 18Mbit, 500MByte/sec DRAM 1994
- A 500-Megabyte/s Data-Rate 4.5M DRAM IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1993; 28: 490-498
- PLL Design for a 500MByte/sec Interface 1993
- A 155MHz Clock Recovery Delay- and Phase-Locked Loop IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 1992; 27: 1736-1746
- A 155MHz Clock Recovery Delay- and Phase-Locked Loop 1992
- Circuits, Analog” and “Circuits, Digital articles for Encyclopedia of Applied Physics VCH Publishers. 1992: 1