Bio


Tanya Marie Luhrmann is the Albert Ray Lang Professor of Anthropology at Stanford University, with a courtesy appointment in Psychology. Her work focuses on the edge of experience: on voices, visions, the world of the supernatural and the world of psychosis. She has done ethnography on the streets of Chicago with homeless and psychotic women, and worked with people who hear voices in Chennai, Accra and the South Bay. She has also done fieldwork with evangelical Christians who seek to hear God speak back, with Zoroastrians who set out to create a more mystical faith, and with people who practice magic. She uses a combination of ethnographic and experimental methods to understand the phenomenology of unusual sensory experiences, the way they are shaped by ideas about minds and persons, and what we can learn from this social shaping that can help us to help those whose voices are distressing. At the heart of the work is the sense of being called, and its possibilities and burden.

She was named to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2003, received a John Guggenheim Fellowship award in 2007 and elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2022. When God Talks Back was named a NYT Notable Book of the Year and a Kirkus Reviews Best Book of the Year. It was awarded the $100,000 Grawemeyer Prize for Religion by the University of Louisville. She has published over thirty OpEds in The New York Times, and her work has been featured in The New Yorker, The New York Review of Books, The Times Literary Supplement, Science News, and many other publications. She is the author of Persuasions of the Witch’s Craft, The Good Parsi, Of Two Minds, When God Talks Back, Our Most Troubling Madness, and How God Becomes Real, and is currently at work on a book entitled Voices.
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Academic Appointments


Administrative Appointments


  • Participating Fellow, Institute for Advanced Study, Hebrew University (2009 - 2009)
  • Research Fellow, Christ's College (1985 - 1989)
  • Full Professor, University of California, San Diego (1998 - 2000)
  • Professor, University of California, San Diego (1989 - 1998)
  • Max Palevsky Professor, Department of Comparative Human Development, University of Chicago (2004 - 2004)
  • Professor of Anthropology (and Psychology, by courtesy), Stanford University (2007 - Present)
  • Howard and Jessie Watkins University Professor, Stanford University (2010 - 2010)

Honors & Awards


  • Sidney Award, David Brooks (2012)
  • Stirling Prize, American Anthropological Association (1986)
  • Partington Prize, Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry (1985)
  • Emanuel Miller Prize, Cambridge University (1983)
  • Bowdoin Prize, Harvard University (1981)
  • Grawemeyer Award, University of Louisville (2014)
  • Division 36 of APA (Psychology of Religion and Spirituality) Bier Award, American Psychological Association (2014)
  • Religion Newswriters Award for Best Book of the Year, Religion Newswriters Association (2013)
  • Best Book of the Year, Kirkus Reviews (2012)
  • Notable Book of the Year, New York Times (2012)
  • Gradiva Award, Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis (2001)
  • Bryce Boyer Prize for Psychological Anthropology, American Anthropological Association (2001)
  • Victor Turner Prize in Ethnographic Writing, American Anthropological Association (2001)
  • Fellow, Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences (2007-2008)
  • Fellowship, John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (2007-2008)
  • Fellow, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Science (1994-1995)
  • Spencer Fellowship, National Academy of Education (1992)
  • Fulbright Senior Research award, Institute of International Education (1990)
  • Fieldwork support, Nuffield Foundation; the British Academy; the Rotary Foundation (1987-1988)
  • Fieldwork support, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research; the Wyse Fund; the Richards Fund (1983-1984)
  • Graduate Fellowship, National Science Foundation (1981-1985)
  • The Lionel deJersey Scholarship (John Harvard Fellowship), Emmanuel College (1981)
  • Member of Phi Beta Kappa, Iota chapter, Phi Beta Kappa Society (1981)

Boards, Advisory Committees, Professional Organizations


  • Member, Committee on the History of Culture, University of Chicago
  • Contributing Op-Ed Columnist, New York Times (2014 - 2016)
  • Associate, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago
  • Chair, Committee on South Asian Studies, University of Chicago (2004 - 2007)
  • Member, University of Chicago Press Board (2004 - 2007)
  • Member, Institutional Review Board, University of Chicago (2004 - 2007)
  • Co-director of the Clinical Ethnography program, University of Chicago
  • Privilege and Tenure appointment, Academic Senate, University of California, San Diego (1995 - 1998)
  • Chair, Academic Senate, University of California, San Diego (1997 - 1998)
  • University-wide Privilege and Tenure appointment, Academic Senate, University of California, San Diego (1997 - 1998)
  • Chair, Academic Senate, University of California, San Diego (1998 - 1999)
  • Trustee, UC Foundation, University of California, San Diego (1999 - 2000)
  • Panelist for grant reviews, National Science Foundation (1996 - 1998)
  • Member, Executive Program Committee, American Anthropological Association (1999 - 1999)
  • Board Member, Society for the Anthropology or Religion (2000 - 2003)
  • Ad hoc National Institutes of Health panelist, Services Research, National Institutes of Health (2001 - 2007)
  • Series Editor, Ethnography of subjectivity, University of California Press (2001 - 2008)
  • Series Editor, Ethnography of subjectivity, University of California Press (2012 - Present)
  • Editorial Board Member, Culture, medicine and psychiatry (2001 - 2006)
  • Editorial Board Member, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Association (2001 - 2006)
  • Elected, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2003 - 2003)
  • Program Chair, American Anthropological Association (2004 - 2004)
  • President, Society for Psychological Anthropology (2007 - 2009)
  • Editorial Board Member, American Ethnologist (2008 - 2011)
  • Editorial Board Member, Current Anthropology (2013 - Present)
  • Editorial Board Member, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (2013 - Present)

Program Affiliations


  • Center for Human Rights and International Justice

Professional Education


  • M.Phil., Cambridge University, Social Anthropology (1982)
  • Ph.D., Cambridge University, Social Anthropology (1986)
  • B.A., Harvard University, Folklore and Mythology (1981)

Current Research and Scholarly Interests


Her work focuses on the edge of experience: on voices, visions, the world of the supernatural and the world of psychosis. She has done ethnography on the streets of Chicago with homeless and psychotic women, and worked with people who hear voices in Chennai, Accra and the South Bay. She has also done fieldwork with evangelical Christians who seek to hear God speak back, with Zoroastrians who set out to create a more mystical faith, and with people who practice magic. She uses a combination of ethnographic and experimental methods to understand the phenomenology of unusual sensory experiences, the way they are shaped by ideas about minds and persons, and what we can learn from this social shaping that can help us to help those whose voices are distressing.

Current project: The Mind and Spirit project is a Templeton funded, Stanford-based comparative and interdisciplinary project under the direction of TM Luhrmann (PI), drawing on the expertise of anthropologists, psychologists, historians, and philosophers. The project asks whether different understandings of “mind”, broadly construed, might shape or be related to the ways that people attend to and interpret experiences they deem spiritual or supernatural. We took a mixed method, multiphase approach, combining participant observation, long form semi-structured interviews, quantitative surveys among the general population and local undergraduates, and psychological experiments with children and adults. We worked in five different countries: China, Ghana, Thailand, Vanuatu and the US, with some work in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In each country, we included a focus on an urban charismatic evangelical church, with additional work in a rural charismatic evangelical church, and in another urban and rural religious setting of local importance.

2023-24 Courses


Stanford Advisees


All Publications


  • Voice hearing as a social barometer: Benevolent persuasion, ancestral spirits, and politics in the voices of psychosis in Shanghai, China. Transcultural psychiatry Ng, E., Chen, F., Zhao, X., Marie Luhrmann, T. 2023: 13634615231202090

    Abstract

    The comparative study of voice hearing is in its early stages. This approach is important due to the observation that the content of voices differs across different settings, which suggests that voice hearing may respond to cultural invitation and, ultimately, to learning. Our interview-based study found that persons diagnosed with schizophrenia in China (Shanghai), compared to those diagnosed with schizophrenia in the United States, Ghana, and India, reported voices that were strikingly concerned with politics. Compared to participants in the United States in particular, voices seemed to be experienced more relationally: Shanghai participants reported voices notable for a sense of benevolent persuasion rather than harsh command, and knew the identities of their voices more so than in the United States. The voices were striking as well for their religious content, despite the previous prohibition of religion in China. Our findings further support the hypothesis that voice hearing seems to be shaped by context, and we observe that this shaping may affect not only conceptual content but the emotional valence of the experience.

    View details for DOI 10.1177/13634615231202090

    View details for PubMedID 37753781

  • Hearing voices among Russian patients with schizophrenia. Transcultural psychiatry Altman, M. G., Kuzmina, S. V., Irkabaeva, A. B., Mason, D. P., Luhrmann, T. M. 2023: 13634615231191980

    Abstract

    There has been relatively little work which systematically examines whether the content of hallucinations in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia varies by cultural context. The work that exists finds that it does. The present project explores the way auditory hallucinations, or "voices," manifest in a Russian cultural context. A total of 28 individuals, diagnosed with schizophrenia, who reported hearing voices at the Republican Clinical Psychiatric Hospitals in Kazan, Russia, were interviewed about their experience of auditory hallucinations. The voices reported by our Russian participants did appear to have culturally specific content. Commands tended to be non-violent and focused on chores or other activities associated with daily life (byt). Many patients also reported sensory hallucinations involving other visions, sounds, and smells which sometimes reflected Russian folklore themes. For the most part, religious themes did not appear in patients' auditory vocal hallucinations, though nearly all patients expressed adherence to a religion. These findings support research that finds that the content, and perhaps the form, of auditory hallucinations may be shaped by local culture.

    View details for DOI 10.1177/13634615231191980

    View details for PubMedID 37583306

  • The Experience of Psychosis in Psychiatric Inpatients During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Unhoused Individuals. Culture, medicine and psychiatry Lebovitz, J. G., Luhrmann, T. M., AhnAllen, C. G. 2023

    Abstract

    This research investigates the impact of Coronavirus-2019 on individuals without housing and experiencing psychosis using semi-structured qualitative interviews and a case study format. We found that for our participants, life in the pandemic was generally more difficult and filled with violence. Further, the pandemic seemed to impact the content of psychosis directly, such that in some cases voices referred to politics around the virus. Being unhoused during the pandemic may increase the sense of powerlessness, social defeat, and the sense of failure in social interactions. Despite national and local measures to mitigate virus spread in unhoused communities, the pandemic seemed to be particularly hard on those who were unhoused. This research should support our efforts to see access to secure housing as a human rights issue.

    View details for DOI 10.1007/s11013-023-09826-4

    View details for PubMedID 37246170

  • Learning to Discern the Voices of Gods, Spirits, Tulpas, and the Dead. Schizophrenia bulletin Luhrmann, T. M., Alderson-Day, B., Chen, A., Corlett, P., Deeley, Q., Dupuis, D., Lifshitz, M., Moseley, P., Peters, E., Powell, A., Powers, A. 2023; 49 (Supplement_1): S3-S12

    Abstract

    There are communities in which hearing voices frequently is common and expected, and in which participants are not expected to have a need for care. This paper compares the ideas and practices of these communities. We observe that these communities utilize cultural models to identify and to explain voice-like events-and that there are some common features to these models across communities. All communities teach participants to "discern," or identify accurately, the legitimate voice of the spirit or being who speaks. We also observe that there are roughly two methods taught to participants to enable them to experience spirits (or other invisible beings): trained attention to inner experience, and repeated speech to the invisible other. We also observe that all of these communities model a learning process in which the ability to hear spirit (or invisible others) becomes more skilled with practice, and in which what they hear becomes clearer over time. Practice-including the practice of discernment-is presumed to change experience. We also note that despite these shared cultural ideas and practices, there is considerable individual variation in experience-some of which may reflect psychotic process, and some perhaps not. We suggest that voice-like events in this context may be shaped by cognitive expectation and trained practice as well as an experiential pathway. We also suggest that researchers could explore these common features both as a way to help those struggling with psychosis, and to consider the possibility that expectations and practice may affect the voice-hearing experience.

    View details for DOI 10.1093/schbul/sbac005

    View details for PubMedID 36840538

  • Porosity Is the Heart of Religion CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Luhrmann, T., Weisman, K. 2022
  • Big comparison RELIGION BRAIN & BEHAVIOR Luhrmann, T. 2022; 12 (1-2): 219-221
  • Experience of psychosis during the COVID-19 pandemic among hospitalized patients PSYCHOSIS-PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL AND INTEGRATIVE APPROACHES Lebovitz, J., AhnAllen, C., Luhrmann, T. 2022
  • Similarities and differences in concepts of mental life among adults and children in five cultures. Nature human behaviour Weisman, K., Legare, C. H., Smith, R. E., Dzokoto, V. A., Aulino, F., Ng, E., Dulin, J. C., Ross-Zehnder, N., Brahinsky, J. D., Luhrmann, T. M. 2021

    Abstract

    How do concepts of mental life vary across cultures? By asking simple questions about humans, animals and other entities - for example, 'Do beetles get hungry? Remember things? Feel love?' - we reconstructed concepts of mental life from the bottom up among adults (N=711) and children (ages 6-12years, N=693) in the USA, Ghana, Thailand, China and Vanuatu. This revealed a cross-cultural and developmental continuity: in all sites, among both adults and children, cognitive abilities travelled separately from bodily sensations, suggesting that a mind-body distinction is common across diverse cultures and present by middle childhood. Yet there were substantial cultural and developmental differences in the status of social-emotional abilities - as part of the body, part of the mind or a third category unto themselves. Such differences may have far-reaching social consequences, whereas the similarities identify aspects of human understanding that may be universal.

    View details for DOI 10.1038/s41562-021-01184-8

    View details for PubMedID 34446916

  • Reply to Terhune and Jamieson: The nature of absorption. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Luhrmann, T. M., Weisman, K., Aulino, F., Brahinsky, J. D., Dulin, J. C., Dzokoto, V. A., Legare, C. H., Lifshitz, M., Ng, E., Ross-Zehnder, N., Smith, R. E. 2021; 118 (32)

    View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.2109120118

    View details for PubMedID 34341113

  • The sense of presence: lessons from virtual reality RELIGION BRAIN & BEHAVIOR Erickson-Davis, C., Luhrmann, T. M., Kurina, L. M., Weisman, K., Cornman, N., Corwin, A., Bailenson, J. 2021
  • Sensing the presence of gods and spirits across cultures and faiths. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Luhrmann, T. M., Weisman, K., Aulino, F., Brahinsky, J. D., Dulin, J. C., Dzokoto, V. A., Legare, C. H., Lifshitz, M., Ng, E., Ross-Zehnder, N., Smith, R. E. 2021; 118 (5)

    Abstract

    Hearing the voice of God, feeling the presence of the dead, being possessed by a demonic spirit-such events are among the most remarkable human sensory experiences. They change lives and in turn shape history. Why do some people report experiencing such events while others do not? We argue that experiences of spiritual presence are facilitated by cultural models that represent the mind as "porous," or permeable to the world, and by an immersive orientation toward inner life that allows a person to become "absorbed" in experiences. In four studies with over 2,000 participants from many religious traditions in the United States, Ghana, Thailand, China, and Vanuatu, porosity and absorption played distinct roles in determining which people, in which cultural settings, were most likely to report vivid sensory experiences of what they took to be gods and spirits.

    View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.2016649118

    View details for PubMedID 33495328

  • To Believe Is Not to Think: A Cross-Cultural Finding. Open mind : discoveries in cognitive science Van Leeuwen, N., Weisman, K., Luhrmann, T. M. 2021; 5: 91-99

    Abstract

    Are religious beliefs psychologically different from matter-of-fact beliefs? Many scholars say no: that religious people, in a matter-of-fact way, simply think their deities exist. Others say yes: that religious beliefs are more compartmentalized, less certain, and less responsive to evidence. Little research to date has explored whether lay people themselves recognize such a difference. We addressed this question in a series of sentence completion tasks, conducted in five settings that differed both in religious traditions and in language: the United States, Ghana, Thailand, China, and Vanuatu. Participants everywhere routinely used different verbs to describe religious versus matter-of-fact beliefs, and they did so even when the ascribed belief contents were held constant and only the surrounding context varied. These findings support the view that people from diverse cultures and language communities recognize a difference in attitude type between religious belief and everyday matter-of-fact belief.

    View details for DOI 10.1162/opmi_a_00044

    View details for PubMedID 34746617

  • Beyond Trauma: A Multiple Pathways Approach to Auditory Hallucinations in Clinical and Nonclinical Populations. Schizophrenia bulletin Luhrmann, T. M., Alderson-Day, B., Bell, V., Bless, J. J., Corlett, P., Hugdahl, K., Jones, N., Laroi, F., Moseley, P., Padmavati, R., Peters, E., Powers, A. R., Waters, F. 2019; 45 (Supplement_1): S24–S31

    Abstract

    That trauma can play a significant role in the onset and maintenance of voice-hearing is one of the most striking and important developments in the recent study of psychosis. Yet the finding that trauma increases the risk for hallucination and for psychosis is quite different from the claim that trauma is necessary for either to occur. Trauma is often but not always associated with voice-hearing in populations with psychosis; voice-hearing is sometimes associated with willful training and cultivation in nonclinical populations. This article uses ethnographic data among other data to explore the possibility of multiple pathways to voice-hearing for clinical and nonclinical individuals whose voices are not due to known etiological factors such as drugs, sensory deprivation, epilepsy, and so forth. We suggest that trauma sometimes plays a major role in hallucinations, sometimes a minor role, and sometimes no role at all. Our work also finds seemingly distinct phenomenological patterns for voice-hearing, which may reflect the different salience of trauma for those who hear voices.

    View details for PubMedID 30715545

  • Reliving, Replaying Lived Experiences Through Auditory Verbal Hallucinations: Implications on Theories and Management. Frontiers in psychiatry Vallath, S., Luhrmann, T., Bunders, J., Ravikant, L., Gopikumar, V. 2018; 9: 528

    Abstract

    Objective: This study aims to understand the impact of negative life experience (NLE) in auditory hallucinations (AHs) and explain the heterogeneity in phenomenology of auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs). Method: In depth interviews were conducted with 21 individuals (7 males and 14 females) experiencing AHs and accessing mental health treatment services at a not-for-profit organization. Maximum variation purposive sampling technique was used to select the sample to ensure variegation is accounted for and was collected until saturation of themes data was obtained. Results: Various different forms and functions of hallucinations are obtained with an evident pattern that links voices back to the NLE of the individual. Implications for therapeutic methods focusing on distress arising from said NLE is emphasized. Conclusions: The results obtained from this study implicate NLEs as a contributing factor in the development and maintenance of hallucinations. Sociocultural factors act as a catalyst with psychological factors creating distress and contributing to the voice-hearing experience. Treatment strategies must thus focus on content of voices and past experiences of the individual to promote recovery. A model toward conceptualization of the diversity in phenomenology is put forth.

    View details for DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00528

    View details for PubMedID 30425660

    View details for PubMedCentralID PMC6218596

  • Reliving, Replaying Lived Experiences Through Auditory Verbal Hallucinations: Implications on Theories and Management FRONTIERS IN PSYCHIATRY Vallath, S., Luhrmann, T., Bunders, J., Ravikant, L., Gopikumar, V. 2018; 9
  • Cognitive insight and objective quality of life in people with schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations PSYCHIATRY RESEARCH Rathee, R., Luhrmann, T. M., Bhatia, T., Deshpande, S. N. 2018; 259: 223–28

    Abstract

    Poor cognitive insight in schizophrenia has been linked to delusions, hallucinations, and negative symptoms as well as to depressive/anxiety symptoms. Its impact on quality of life has been less studied, especially in schizophrenia subjects with ongoing auditory hallucinations. The Beck Cognitive Insight Scale (BCIS) and the Quality of Life Scale (QLS) were administered to subjects who met DSM IV criteria for schizophrenia after due translation and validation. All subjects reported ongoing auditory hallucinations at recruitment. Mean composite cognitive insight scores from participants (N = 60) (2.97 ± 2.649) were in the lower range as compared to published literature. Cognitive insight scores as well as self-reflectiveness subscale scores, but not self-certainty scores, correlated significantly with the QLS scores p < 0.001. Results suggest that better cognitive insight, especially self-reflectiveness, may be linked to better quality of life. Self-reflectiveness could be a useful construct to address in psychotherapy to improve rehabilitation.

    View details for PubMedID 29091820

  • Magic's reason: An anthropology of analogy (Book Review) HAU-JOURNAL OF ETHNOGRAPHIC THEORY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. 2017; 7 (3): 383–86
  • Culture and PTSD: Trauma in Global and Historical Perspective (Book Review) MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. 2017; 31 (4)

    View details for DOI 10.1111/maq.12379

    View details for Web of Science ID 000417275200004

  • "Did I push myself over the edge?": Complications of agency in psychosis onset and development PSYCHOSIS-PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL AND INTEGRATIVE APPROACHES Jones, N., Shattell, M., Kelly, T., Brown, R., Robinson, L., Renfro, R., Harris, B., Luhrmann, T. M. 2016; 8 (4): 324-335
  • Beyond the sensory: Findings from an in-depth analysis of the phenomenology of "auditory hallucinations" in schizophrenia PSYCHOSIS-PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL AND INTEGRATIVE APPROACHES Jones, N., Luhrmann, T. M. 2016; 8 (3): 191-202
  • Hearing Voices in Different Cultures: A Social Kindling Hypothesis TOPICS IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE Luhrmann, T. M., Padmavati, R., Tharoor, H., Osei, A. 2015; 7 (4): 646-663

    View details for DOI 10.1111/tops.12158

    View details for PubMedID 26349837

  • Differences in voice-hearing experiences of people with psychosis in the USA, India and Ghana: interview-based study BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Luhrmann, T. M., Padmavati, R., Tharoor, H., Osei, A. 2015; 206 (1): 41-44

    Abstract

    We still know little about whether and how the auditory hallucinations associated with serious psychotic disorder shift across cultural boundaries.To compare auditory hallucinations across three different cultures, by means of an interview-based study.An anthropologist and several psychiatrists interviewed participants from the USA, India and Ghana, each sample comprising 20 persons who heard voices and met the inclusion criteria of schizophrenia, about their experience of voices.Participants in the U.S.A. were more likely to use diagnostic labels and to report violent commands than those in India and Ghana, who were more likely than the Americans to report rich relationships with their voices and less likely to describe the voices as the sign of a violated mind.These observations suggest that the voice-hearing experiences of people with serious psychotic disorder are shaped by local culture. These differences may have clinical implications.

    View details for DOI 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.139048

    View details for Web of Science ID 000349656200008

    View details for PubMedID 24970772

  • The Cultural Kindling of Spiritual Experiences CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY Cassaniti, J. L., Luhrmann, T. M. 2014; 55: S333-S343

    View details for DOI 10.1086/677881

    View details for Web of Science ID 000346050800018

  • Culture and Hallucinations: Overview and Future Directions SCHIZOPHRENIA BULLETIN Laroi, F., Luhrmann, T. M., Bell, V., Christian, W. A., Deshpande, S., Fernyhough, C., Jenkins, J., Woods, A. 2014; 40: S213-S220
  • Culture and hallucinations: overview and future directions. Schizophrenia bulletin Larøi, F., Luhrmann, T. M., Bell, V., Christian, W. A., Deshpande, S., Fernyhough, C., Jenkins, J., Woods, A. 2014; 40: S213-20

    Abstract

    A number of studies have explored hallucinations as complex experiences involving interactions between psychological, biological, and environmental factors and mechanisms. Nevertheless, relatively little attention has focused on the role of culture in shaping hallucinations. This article reviews the published research, drawing on the expertise of both anthropologists and psychologists. We argue that the extant body of work suggests that culture does indeed have a significant impact on the experience, understanding, and labeling of hallucinations and that there may be important theoretical and clinical consequences of that observation. We find that culture can affect what is identified as a hallucination, that there are different patterns of hallucination among the clinical and nonclinical populations, that hallucinations are often culturally meaningful, that hallucinations occur at different rates in different settings; that culture affects the meaning and characteristics of hallucinations associated with psychosis, and that the cultural variations of psychotic hallucinations may have implications for the clinical outcome of those who struggle with psychosis. We conclude that a clinician should never assume that the mere report of what seems to be a hallucination is necessarily a symptom of pathology and that the patient's cultural background needs to be taken into account when assessing and treating hallucinations.

    View details for DOI 10.1093/schbul/sbu012

    View details for PubMedID 24936082

  • Talking to God in Accra Pastoral Psychology Luhrmann, T. M. 2014: 229-234
  • Talking about When God Talks Back Hau: Journal of Ethnographic Theory Luhrmann, T. M. 2014; 3 (3): 389-398
  • Making God real and making God good: Some mechanisms through which prayer may contribute to healing. Transcultural psychiatry Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 50 (5): 707-725

    Abstract

    Many social scientists attribute the health-giving properties of religious practice to social support. This paper argues that another mechanism may be a positive relationship with the supernatural, a proposal that builds upon anthropological accounts of symbolic healing. Such a mechanism depends upon the learned cultivation of the imagination and the capacity to make what is imagined more real and more good. This paper offers a theory of the way that prayer enables this process and provides some evidence, drawn from experimental and ethnographic work, for the claim that a relationship with a loving God, cultivated through the imagination in prayer, may contribute to good health and may contribute to healing in trauma and psychosis.

    View details for DOI 10.1177/1363461513487670

    View details for PubMedID 23793786

  • Suffering and Sentiment: Exploring the Vicissitudes of Experience and Pain in Yap (Book Review) AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 115 (3)
  • WITCHCRAFT AND A LIFE IN THE NEW SOUTH AFRICA (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2013: 13-13
  • Lord, teach us to pray: prayer affects cognitive processing Culture and Cognition Luhrmann, T. M., Nusbaum, H., Thisted, R. 2013: 159-177
  • Review of Hallucinations - Oliver Sacks American Scholar Luhrmann, T. M. 2013: 111-112
  • What an ecological approach can teach us Ritual, Brain and Behavior Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 4 (2): 159-161
  • Knowing God, attentional learning and the local theory of mind Religion, Brain and Behavior Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 4 (1): 78-90
  • What anthropology should learn from G.E.R. Lloyd Hau: Journal of Ethnographic Theory Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 3 (1): 171-173
  • Blinded by the right? How the hippie Christians begat the evangelical movement Harpers Magazine Luhrmann, T. M. 2013: 39-44
  • Review of Spirit possession and Trance - Bettina Schmidt and Lucy Huskinson Numen Luhrmann, T. M. 2013
  • On William James Mental culture: towards a cognitive science of religion Luhrmann, T. M. edited by McCorkle, L., Xygalatas, D. London: Equinox Press. 2013
  • Response Spiritus Luhrmann, T. M. 2013; 13 (1): 137-140
  • Prayer as Inner Sense Cultivation: An Attentional Learning Theory of Spiritual Experience ETHOS Luhrmann, T. M., Morgain, R. 2012; 40 (4): 359-389
  • The Zone of Social Abandonment in Cultural Geography: On the Street in the United States, Inside the Family in India CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY Marrow, J., Luhrmann, T. M. 2012; 36 (3): 493-513

    Abstract

    This essay examines the spaces across societies in which persons with severe mental illness lose meaningful social roles and are reduced to "bare life." Comparing ethnographic and interview data from the United States and India, we suggest that these processes of exclusion take place differently: on the street in the United States, and in the family household in India. We argue that cultural, historical, and economic factors determine which spaces become zones of social abandonment across societies. We compare strategies for managing and treating persons with psychosis across the United States and India, and demonstrate that the relative efficiency of state surveillance of populations and availability of public social and psychiatric services, the relative importance of family honor, the extent to which a culture of psychopharmaceutical use has penetrated social life, and other historical features, contribute to circumstances in which disordered Indian persons are more likely to be forcefully "hidden" in domestic space, whereas mentally ill persons in the United States are more likely to be expelled to the street. However, in all locations, social marginalization takes place by stripping away the subject's efficacy in social communication. That is, the socially "dead" lose communicative efficacy, a predicament, following Agamben, we describe as "bare voice."

    View details for DOI 10.1007/s11013-012-9266-y

    View details for Web of Science ID 000307402900006

    View details for PubMedID 22547245

  • A Hyperreal God and Modern Belief Toward an Anthropological Theory of Mind CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY Luhrmann, T. M. 2012; 53 (4): 371-395

    View details for DOI 10.1086/666529

    View details for Web of Science ID 000306377100001

  • Beyond the brain Utne Reader Luhrmann, T. M. 2012
  • Beyond the brain Wilson Quarterly Luhrmann, T. M. 2012: 28-34
  • Towards an Anthropological Theory of Mind Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Association Luhrmann, T. M. 2012; 36 (4): 5-69
  • Touching the divine Reviews in Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. 2012; 41 (2): 136-150
  • Encountering the supernatural: A phenomenological account of mind Religion and Society Cassaniti, J., Luhrmann, T. M. 2012; 2: 37-53
  • When God talks back: understanding the American evangelical relationship with God Luhrmann, T. M. Knopf. 2012
  • Living with Voices Current—Required Reading Recommended by Leading Opinion Makers Luhrmann, T. M. 2012
  • Living with Voices American Scholar Luhrmann, T. M. 2012: 49-60
  • Beyond the brain Current—Required Reading Recommended by Leading Opinion Makers Luhrmann, T. M. 2012
  • The Subject of Anthropology: Gender, Symbolism, and Psychoanalysis (Book Review) AMERICAN ETHNOLOGIST Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2011; 38 (4): 843-844
  • Hallucinations and Sensory Overrides ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY, VOL 40 Luhrmann, T. M. 2011; 40: 71-85
  • Medication on the street The Anthropology of psychopharmacology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Jenkins, J. Santa Fe: School of American Research. 2011
  • The Empire of Trauma: An Inquiry Into the Condition of Victimhood (Book Review) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2010; 167 (6): 722-722
  • The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease (Book Review) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2010; 167 (4): 479-480
  • The Absorption Hypothesis: Learning to Hear God in Evangelical Christianity AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST Luhrmann, T. M., Nusbaum, H., Thisted, R. 2010; 112 (1): 66-78
  • Down and Out in Chicago RARITAN-A QUARTERLY REVIEW Luhrmann, T. M. 2010; 29 (3): 140-166
  • Immanent Frame, discussion of Webb Keane Christian Moderns Luhrmann, T. M. 2010
  • What students can teach us about iphones Salon Luhrmann, T. M. 2010
  • Making God Real Invisible forces and Unseen Powers Lurhmann, T. M. edited by Cacioppo, J. FT (Pearson) Press. 2010
  • The problem of proclivity Emotions in the Field Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Davies, J., Spencer, D. Stanford University Press. 2010
  • Uneasy street The Insecure American Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Gusterson, H., Besterman, C. University of California. 2009
  • Review of New Age Neopagan Religions in America - Sarah Pike History of Religions Luhrmann, T. M. 2009
  • "The Street Will Drive You Crazy": Why homeless psychotic women in the institutional circuit in the United States often say no to offers of help 160th Annual Meeting of the American-Psychiatric-Association Luhrmann, T. M. AMER PSYCHIATRIC PUBLISHING, INC. 2008: 15–20

    Abstract

    Many people who struggle with psychotic disorder often refuse offers of help, including housing, extended by mental health services. This article uses the ethnographic method to examine the reasons for such refusal among women who are homeless and psychiatrically ill in the institutional circuit in an urban area of Chicago. It concludes that such refusals arise not only from a lack of insight but also from the local culture's ascription of meaning to being "crazy." These data suggest that offers of help-specifically, diagnosis-dependent housing-to those on the street may be more successful when explicit psychiatric diagnosis is downplayed.

    View details for Web of Science ID 000252186000006

    View details for PubMedID 18086748

  • Social defeat and the culture of chronicity: Or, why schizophrenia does so well over there and so badly here CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY Luhrmann, T. M. 2007; 31 (2): 135-172

    Abstract

    The history of the way schizophrenia has been conceptualized in American psychiatry has led us to be hesitant to explore the role of social causation in schizophrenia. But there is now good evidence for social impact on the course, outcome, and even origin of schizophrenia, most notably in the better prognosis for schizophrenia in developing countries and in the higher rates of schizophrenia for dark-skinned immigrants to England and the Netherlands. This article proposes that "social defeat" may be one of the social factors that may impact illness experience and uses original ethnographic research to argue that social defeat is a common feature of the social context in which many people diagnosed with schizophrenia in America live today.

    View details for DOI 10.1007/s11013-007-9049-z

    View details for Web of Science ID 000247932500005

    View details for PubMedID 17534703

  • Metakinesis: how God becomes intimate in contemporary US Christianity Reflecting on America: Anthropological Views of U.S. Culture Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Boulanger, C. Pearson. 2007
  • How do you know that it is God who talks Learning Religion Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Berliner, D., Sarro, R. 2007
  • Modes of religiosity: A cognitive theory of religious transmission (Book Review) JOURNAL OF RELIGION Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. 2006; 86 (3): 516-518
  • On Spirituality Howard Gardner Under Fire: a rebel psychologist faces his critics Luhrmann, T. M. Chicago: Open Court. 2006: 83–110
  • Subjectivity Anthropological Theory Luhrmann, T. M. 2006; 6 (3): 343-361
  • The Zoroastrian tradition in India Religions of South Asia Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Mittal, S., Thursby, G. R. London: Routledge. 2006: 151–168
  • Anthropology The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Golden, R. 2006
  • The secret of Bryn Estyn - The making of a modern witch hunt (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2005: 9-10
  • The art of hearing God: absorption, dissociation and contemporary American spirtuality Spiritus: a Journal of Christian Spirtuality Luhrmann, T. M. 2005; 5 (2): 133-157
  • Witchcraft in the modern west The Encyclopedia of Shamnism Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Walter, M., Fridman, E. 2005: 519–522
  • An anthropological view of psychiatry Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Sadock, B., Sadock, V. 2005; VIII: 3958–3968
  • Metakinesis: How God becomes intimate in contemporary US christianity AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST Luhrmann, T. M. 2004; 106 (3): 518-528
  • Yearning for God: trance as a culturally specific practice and its implication for understanding dissociative disorders Journal of Trauma and Dissociation Luhrmann, T. M. 2004; 5 (2): 101-129
  • Metakinesis: how God becomes intimate in contemporary US Christianity America's Diverse Cultures Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Adams, J. Kendall Hunt Publishing. 2004
  • Review of Random Family - A. LeBlanc New York Observer Luhrmann, T. M. 2003
  • Evil in the sands of time: Theology and identity politics among the Zoroastrian Parsis JOURNAL OF ASIAN STUDIES Luhrmann, T. M. 2002; 61 (3): 861-889
  • Women and borderline personality disorder: Symptoms and stories. (Book Review) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2002; 108 (1): 259-261
  • Mad in America: Bad science, bad medicine and the enduring mistreatment of the mentally ill (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2002: 10-10
  • Savage girls and wild boys: A history of feral children (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2002: 6-7
  • The ugly goddess: Reflections on the role of violent images in religious experience HISTORY OF RELIGIONS Luhrmann, T. M. 2001; 41 (2): 114-141
  • Culture in practice: Selected essays (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2001: 7-8
  • The lost children of Wilder - The epic struggle to change foster care (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 2001: 8-8
  • Spiritualism and British society between the wars (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2001: 4-5
  • Angles of reflection - Logic and a mother's love (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 2001: 17-17
  • The fate of "culture" - Geertz and beyond (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2001: 3-4
  • Clifford Geertz - Culture, custom and ethics (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2001: 3-4
  • Available light (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2001: 3-4
  • To redeem one person is to redeem the world - The life of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 2001: 22-22
  • Review of Promises, Promises - A. Phillips The New York Observer Luhrmann, T. M. 2001
  • Dissociation, social technology and the spiritual domain The Best of Britain: the ethnography of Britain Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Rapport, N. London: Berg. 2001
  • Of two minds: an anthropologist looks at American psychiatry Luhrmann, T. M. Vintage. 2001
  • Commentary, 'Towards an anthropology of managed care' Culture, medicine and psychiatry Luhrmann, T. M. 2001
  • Letter New England Journal of Medicine Luhrmann, T. M. 2001
  • Identity in anthropology The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Smelser, N., Baltes, N. P. New York: Elsevier. 2001: 7134–7139
  • Review of Culture - A. Kuper Times Literary Supplement Luhrmann, T. M. 2001
  • The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences The International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Smelser, N., Baltes, N. P. New York: Elsevier. 2001: 15665–15668
  • Commentary, 'Missionary positions: Christian, Modernist and Postmodernist' by R.J. Priest Current Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. 2001; 42 (1): 55-56
  • The triumph of the Moon - A history of modern pagan witchcraft (Book Review) TLS-THE TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 2000: 36-36
  • The traumatized social self the Parsi predicament in modern Bombay Cultures under siege: collective violence and trauma in interdisciplinary perspectives Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Robben, A., Suarez-Orozco, M. Cambridge University Press. 2000
  • Of two minds: the growing disorder in American psychiatry Luhrmann, T. M. Alfred A. Knopf. 2000
  • One nation, after all - Commentary SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES LUHRMANN, T. 1999; 42 (1): 120-123
  • No go the Bogeyman - Scaring, lulling, and making mock (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1999: 14-15
  • Magic The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Barfield, T. Basil Blackwell. 1998
  • Sorcery The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Barfield, T. Basil Blackwell. 1998
  • Cults The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Barfield, T. Basil Blackwell. 1998
  • Partial failure: The attempt to deal with uncertainty in psychoanalytic psychotherapy and in anthropology PSYCHOANALYTIC QUARTERLY Luhrmann, T. M. 1998; 67 (3): 449-473

    Abstract

    The paper identifies and tries to explain a style of argument that can be found in recent psychoanalytic writing and anthropological writing. In particular, it seeks to explain why similar styles of argument (which emphasize narration, interpretation, uncertainty, and the professional's incomplete knowledge of the patient or field subject) are presented in these different fields with such different effect. The paper suggests that these differences might arise from the different moral goals of the disciplines and, specifically, from the differences between a clinical and a non-clinical enterprise.

    View details for Web of Science ID 000075301800005

    View details for PubMedID 9710903

  • Witchcraft The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Barfield, T. Basil Blackwell. 1998
  • Trance The Blackwell Dictionary of Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Barfield, T. Basil Blackwell. 1998
  • Elsie Clews Parsons - Inventing modern life - Deacon,D (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1997: 23-23
  • Witches, magic and ordinary folk: why entering a cult is comfortable and feels a lot like joining a religion U.S. News and World Report Luhrmann, T. M. 1997
  • Making gender - The politics and erotics of culture - Ortner,SB (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1996: 25-25
  • Never again the burning times: Paganism revived - Orion,L (Book Review) JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1996; 52 (2): 225-227
  • Living witchcraft: A contemporary American Coven - Scarboro,A, Campbell,N, Stave,S (Book Review) JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1996; 52 (2): 225-227
  • Critical events: An anthropological perspective on contemporary India - Das,V (Book Review) JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1996; 2 (2): 381-382
  • Review of Other Intentions - L. Rosen (ed) American Anthropologist Luhrmann, T. M. 1996; 98 (3): 674-675
  • The Good Parsi: the postcolonial anxieties of an Indian colonial elite Luhrmann, T. M. Harvard University Press. 1996
  • Review of American Medicine as Culture - H. Stein Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review Luhrmann, T. M. 1995; 32 (4): 435-437
  • PATTERNS OF THOUGHT IN AFRICAN AND THE WEST - ESSAYS ON MAGIC, RELIGION AND SCIENCE - HORTON,R (Book Review) MAN Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1994; 29 (4): 1017-1018
  • THE GOOD PARSI - THE POSTCOLONIAL FEMINIZATION OF A COLONIAL ELITE MAN Luhrmann, T. M. 1994; 29 (2): 333-357
  • THE BLOOD LIBEL LEGEND - A CASE-BOOK IN ANTI-SEMITIC FOLKLORE - DUNDES,A (Book Review) MAN Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1994; 29 (2): 483-484
  • Review of Bloodsucking witchcraft: an epistemological study of anthropomorphic supernaturalism in rural Tlaxcala - H. Nutini and J. Roberts Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review Luhrmann, T. M. 1994: 311-313
  • Psychological anthropology as the naturalist's art The making of psychological anthropology II Luhrmann, T. M. edited by Suarez-Orozco, M., Spindler, G., Spindler, L. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publications. 1994
  • HERMES DILEMMA AND HAMLET DESIRE - ON THE EPISTEMOLOGY OF INTERPRETATION - CRAPANZANO,V (Book Review) AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1993; 95 (4): 1058-1059
  • AMAZON HEALER - THE LIFE AND TIMES OF AN URBAN SHAMAN - DERIOS,MD (Book Review) MAN Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1993; 28 (3): 621-621
  • THE RESURGENCE OF ROMANTICISM - CONTEMPORARY NEOPAGANISM, FEMINIST SPIRITUALITY AND THE DIVINITY OF NATURE 1992 Conference of the Association of Social Anthropologists: Anthropological Perspectives on Environmentalism Luhrmann, T. M. ROUTLEDGE. 1993: 219–232
  • Review of The Eagle's Quest - F.A. Wolf The Times Literary Supplement Luhrmann, T. M. 1992
  • Entries on magic Who's Who of Religions Macmillan Reference Books Luhrmann, T. M. 1992
  • Review of The Net of Magic - L. Siegel Journal of Ritual Studies Luhrmann, T. M. 1992; 6 (1): 193-194
  • The Goat and the Gazelle Introduction to Social Anthropology. Luhrmann, T. edited by Haviland, W. 1992
  • MAGIC, SCIENCE, RELIGION AND THE SCOPE OF RATIONALITY - TAMBIAH,SJ (Book Review) MAN Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1991; 26 (3): 579-580
  • THE TASTE OF ETHNOGRAPHIC THINGS - THE SENSES IN ANTHROPOLOGY - STOLLER,P (Book Review) MAN Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1991; 26 (2): 374-375
  • Invited response to review essay of Persuasions of the Witch's Craft Journal of Ritual Studies Luhrmann, T. M. 1991; 5 (2): 128
  • WOMBS AND ALIEN-SPIRITS - WOMEN, MEN AND THE ZAR-CULT IN NORTHERN SUDAN - BODDY,J (Book Review) NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW Book Review Authored by: LUHRMANN, T. 1990: 33-33
  • RITUAL HEALING IN SUBURBAN AMERICA - MCGUIRE,MB (Book Review) CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1990; 14 (1): 133-138
  • Our master, Our brother: Levi-Strauss' debt to Rousseau Cultural Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. 1990; 5 (4): 396-413
  • THE MAGIC OF SECRECY ETHOS Luhrmann, T. M. 1989; 17 (2): 131-165
  • Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: ritual magic in modern culture Luhrmann, T. M. Harvard University Press and Basil Blackwell. 1989
  • RELIGION IN CONTEXT - CULTS AND CHARISMA - LEWIS,IM (Book Review) AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST Book Review Authored by: Luhrmann, T. M. 1987; 89 (2): 477-478
  • An interpretation of the Fama Fraternitatis with respect to Dee's Monas Hieroglyphica. Ambix Luhrmann, T. M. 1986; 33 (1): 1-10

    View details for PubMedID 11616061

  • Witchcraft, morality and magic in contemporary England International Journal of Moral and Social Studies Luhrmann, T. M. 1986; 1 (1): 77-94
  • PERSUASIVE RITUAL THE ROLE OF THE IMAGINATION IN OCCULT WITCHCRAFT ARCHIVES DE SCIENCES SOCIALES DES RELIGIONS Luhrmann, T. M. 1985; 30 (60): 151-170
  • Audrey Richards: In memorium Cambridge Anthropology Luhrmann, T. M. 1985
  • POPUL-VUH AND LACAN ETHOS Luhrmann, T. M. 1984; 12 (4): 335-362