Carol Dweck

All Publications

• Children's ability concepts: Their development, content, and consequences. Advances in child development and behavior Muradoglu, M., Dweck, C. S., Cimpian, A. 2025; 69: 161-191

  Abstract

  In this chapter, we summarize theoretical and empirical work on the development of ability concepts in children. We first examine the form of children's basic concept of ability, asking whether it undergoes major differentiation during development or whether, instead, a near adult-like ability concept is available early on. We then ask when in development children's ability beliefs begin to exhibit coherence and motivational force. The body of evidence reviewed here points to previously unnoticed sophistication, depth, and coherence in young children's ability concepts. We close with a discussion of how theoretical and empirical attention to early ability concepts might advance our understanding of motivational processes in early childhood, as well as offer insights into how to optimize these processes.

  View details for DOI 10.1016/bs.acdb.2025.07.001

  View details for PubMedID 40912870

• A strategic mindset enhances children's generation of effective strategies and delay of gratification across tasks. Developmental psychology Chen, P., Chua, K. Q., Lim, H. Y., Hoe, Y. S., Teo, Q. K., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2025

  Abstract

  Overcoming challenges to achieve success involves being able to spontaneously come up with effective strategies to address different task demands. Research has linked individual differences in such strategy generation and use to optimal development over time and greater success across many areas of life. Yet, there is surprisingly little experimental evidence that tests how we might help young children to spontaneously generate and apply effective strategies across different challenging tasks. We test this in an area important to development: delaying gratification. To do this, we developed a "strategic mindset" storybook that encouraged children, when waiting felt hard, to ask themselves strategy-eliciting questions, such as: "What can I try to be better at this?" In two experiments (N = 237), 5- to 6-year-old children who read the strategic mindset storybook with an experimenter (vs. a control storybook) waited significantly longer to receive desirable treats (Experiments 1 and 2) and to watch an appealing YouTube video (Experiment 2). Moreover, they were able to wait longer because they spontaneously generated and applied a greater number of effective waiting strategies. Going beyond classic research that taught children specific strategies to delay gratification, our results suggest that our new "metacognitive" approach can empower children's self-regulation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/dev0001916

  View details for PubMedID 39836162

• The structure and motivational significance of early beliefs about ability. Developmental psychology Muradoglu, M., Lassetter, B., Sewell, M. N., Ontai, L., Napolitano, C. M., Dweck, C., Trzesniewski, K., Cimpian, A. 2025

  Abstract

  Adults hold a broad range of beliefs about intellectual ability. Key examples include beliefs about its malleability, its distribution in the population, whether high levels of it ("brilliance") are necessary for success, its origins, and its responsiveness to intervention. Here, we examined the structure and motivational significance of this network of consequential beliefs in a sample of elementary school-age children (5- to 11-year-olds, N = 231; 116 girls, 112 boys, three gender nonbinary children; predominantly White and Asian children from relatively high-income backgrounds). We assessed five beliefs: (a) growth mindsets (malleability), (b) universal mindsets (distribution), (c) brilliance beliefs (necessity for success), and beliefs about ability's (d) innateness and (e) responsiveness to intervention. Even among the youngest children, these beliefs were empirically distinguishable and also largely coherent, in that they related to each other in expected ways. Moreover, the five beliefs assessed here were differentially related to children's learning (vs. performance) goals, preference for challenging tasks, and evaluative concern (i.e., concern that mistakes will lead others to evaluate the self negatively). Even when adjusting for age, children with growth mindsets were oriented toward learning goals and preferred challenging tasks; children who believed ability has innate origins preferred performance goals; and younger (but not older) children who thought success required brilliance expressed more concern over being evaluated. These findings speak to the multifaceted nature of children's concepts of ability and highlight their significance for children's achievement-related attitudes and behavior in the early school years. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/dev0001910

  View details for PubMedID 39804388

• Personal Perspectives on Mindsets, Motivation, and Psychology MOTIVATION SCIENCE Dweck, C. S. 2024; 10 (1): 1-8

  View details for DOI 10.1037/mot0000304

  View details for Web of Science ID 001181823400009

• Using large language models in psychology NATURE REVIEWS PSYCHOLOGY Demszky, D., Yang, D., Yeager, D., Bryan, C., Clapper, M., Chandhok, S., Eichstaedt, J., Hecht, C., Jamieson, J., Johnson, M., Jones, M., Krettek-Cobb, D., Lai, L., Jonesmitchell, N., Ong, D., Dweck, C., Gross, J., Pennebaker, J. 2023; 2 (11): 688-701

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s44159-023-00241-5

  View details for Web of Science ID 001124794900011

• Shifting the mindset culture to address global educational disparities. NPJ science of learning Hecht, C. A., Murphy, M. C., Dweck, C. S., Bryan, C. J., Trzesniewski, K. H., Medrano, F. N., Giani, M., Mhatre, P., Yeager, D. S. 2023; 8 (1): 29

  Abstract

  Educational outcomes remain highly unequal within and across nations. Students' mindsets-their beliefs about whether intellectual abilities can be developed-have been identified as a potential lever for making adolescents' academic outcomes more equitable. Recent research, however, suggests that intervention programs aimed at changing students' mindsets should be supplemented by programs aimed at the changing the mindset culture, which is defined as the shared set of beliefs about learning in a school or classroom. This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical origin of the mindset culture and examines its potential to reduce group-based inequalities in education. In particular, experiments have identified two broad ways the mindset culture is communicated by teachers: via informal messages about growth (e.g., that all students will be helped to learn and succeed), and formal opportunities to improve (e.g., learning-focused grading policies and opportunities to revise and earn credit). New field experiments, applying techniques from behavioral science, have also revealed effective ways to influence teachers' culture-creating behaviors. This paper describes recent breakthroughs in the U.S. educational context and discusses how lessons from these studies might be applied in future, global collaborations with researchers and practitioners.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41539-023-00181-y

  View details for PubMedID 37644082

• Changing cancer mindsets: A randomized controlled feasibility and efficacy trial. Psycho-oncology Zion, S. R., Schapira, L., Berek, J. S., Spiegel, D., Dweck, C. S., Crum, A. J. 2023

  Abstract

  OBJECTIVE: A cancer diagnosis and subsequent treatment can disrupt the full spectrum of physical, social, emotional, and functional quality of life. But existing psychological treatments are focused primarily on specific psychological symptoms as opposed to improving the overall patient experience. We studied the feasibility and efficacy of a novel digital intervention targeting patient mindsets-core assumptions about the nature and meaning of illness-designed to improve overall health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in newly diagnosed cancer patients undergoing treatment with curative intent.METHODS: Recently diagnosed (≤150days) adult patients with non-metastatic cancers undergoing systemic treatment (N=361) were recruited from across the United States to participate in this decentralized clinical trial. Patients were randomized 1:1 to receive the Cancer Mindset Intervention (CMI) or Treatment as Usual (TAU). Participants in the CMI group completed seven online modules over 10weeks (2.5h total) targeting mindsets about cancer and the body. The primary outcome was overall HRQoL, and secondary outcomes were coping behaviors and symptom distress.RESULTS: Patients in the CMI group reported significant (p<0.001) improvements in adaptive mindsets about cancer and the body over time. Compared with the TAU condition, the CMI group reported significant improvements in overall HRQoL (B=0.60; 95% CI 0.34-0.85; p<0.001), increased engagement in adaptive coping behaviors (B=0.03; 95% CI 0.02-0.04; p<0.001), and reduced distress from physical symptoms (B=-0.29; 95% CI -0.44 to -0.14; p<0.01). Effect sizes of these changes ranged from d=0.42-d=0.54.CONCLUSION: A brief mindset-focused digital intervention was effective at improving physical, social, emotional, and functional HRQoL. increasing adaptive coping behaviors, and reducing physical symptom distress in newly diagnosed cancer patients.

  View details for DOI 10.1002/pon.6194

  View details for PubMedID 37529924

• A values-aligned intervention fosters growth mindset-supportive teaching and reduces inequality in educational outcomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Hecht, C. A., Bryan, C. J., Yeager, D. S. 2023; 120 (25): e2210704120

  Abstract

  Group-based educational disparities are smaller in classrooms where teachers express a belief that students can improve their abilities. However, a scalable method for motivating teachers to adopt such growth mindset-supportive teaching practices has remained elusive. In part, this is because teachers often already face overwhelming demands on their time and attention and have reason to be skeptical of the professional development advice they receive from researchers and other experts. We designed an intervention that overcame these obstacles and successfully motivated high-school teachers to adopt specific practices that support students' growth mindsets. The intervention used the values-alignment approach. This approach motivates behavioral change by framing a desired behavior as aligned with a core value-one that is an important criterion for status and admiration in the relevant social reference group. First, using qualitative interviews and a nationally representative survey of teachers, we identified a relevant core value: inspiring students' enthusiastic engagement with learning. Next, we designed a ~45-min, self-administered, online intervention that persuaded teachers to view growth mindset-supportive practices as a way to foster such student engagement and thus live up to that value. We randomly assigned 155 teachers (5,393 students) to receive the intervention and 164 teachers (6,167 students) to receive a control module. The growth mindset-supportive teaching intervention successfully promoted teachers' adoption of the suggested practices, overcoming major barriers to changing teachers' classroom practices that other scalable approaches have failed to surmount. The intervention also substantially improved student achievement in socioeconomically disadvantaged classes, reducing inequality in educational outcomes.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.2210704120

  View details for PubMedID 37307478

• A Growth-Theory-of-Interest Intervention Increases Interest in Math and Science Coursework Among Liberal Arts Undergraduates JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY O'Keefe, P. A., Horberg, E. J., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2023

  View details for DOI 10.1037/edu0000798

  View details for Web of Science ID 001000109200001

• Changing Cancer Mindsets: A Randomized Controlled Feasibility and Efficacy Trial Zion, S., Schapira, L., Berek, J., Spiegel, D., Dweck, C., Crum, A. WILEY. 2023: 17

  View details for Web of Science ID 000947888900033

• Efficiently exploring the causal role of contextual moderators in behavioral science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Hecht, C. A., Dweck, C. S., Murphy, M. C., Kroeper, K. M., Yeager, D. S. 2023; 120 (1): e2216315120

  Abstract

  Behavioral science interventions have the potential to address longstanding policy problems, but their effects are typically heterogeneous across contexts (e.g., teachers, schools, and geographic regions). This contextual heterogeneity is poorly understood, however, which reduces the field's impact and its understanding of mechanisms. Here, we present an efficient way to interrogate heterogeneity and address these gaps in knowledge. This method a) presents scenarios that vividly represent different moderating contexts, b) measures a short-term behavioral outcome (e.g., an academic choice) that is known to relate to typical intervention outcomes (e.g., academic achievement), and c) assesses the causal effect of the moderating context on the link between the psychological variable typically targeted by interventions and this short-term outcome. We illustrated the utility of this approach across four experiments (total n = 3,235) that directly tested contextual moderators of the links between growth mindset, which is the belief that ability can be developed, and students' academic choices. The present results showed that teachers' growth mindset-supportive messages and the structural opportunities they provide moderated the link between students' mindsets and their choices (studies 1 to 3). This pattern was replicated in a nationally representative sample of adolescents and did not vary across demographic subgroups (study 2), nor was this pattern the result of several possible confounds (studies 3 to 4). Discussion centers on how this method of interrogating contextual heterogeneity can be applied to other behavioral science interventions and broaden their impact in other policy domains.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.2216315120

  View details for PubMedID 36577065

• Implicit Theories of Opportunity: When Opportunity Fails to Knock, Keep Waiting, or Start Cultivating? JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY O'Keefe, P. A. A., Horberg, E. J., Lee, F., Dweck, C. S. S. 2022

  Abstract

  We live in a time of disappearing professions, pandemic-related upheaval, and growing social inequality. While recognizing that good opportunities are unequally distributed in society (an injustice that requires rectification), can beliefs about the nature and workings of opportunities help people see the door to their goals as more open than closed, and can these beliefs influence the likelihood of goal attainment? Seven studies (N = 1,031) examined people's beliefs about whether or not opportunities can be changed (growth vs. fixed theory of opportunity). In Studies 1a-4, participants responded to scenarios about competent people (or themselves) with challenging, long-term aspirations. When opportunities were available, both theories predicted high expectations for success and a preference for active strategies to pursue the goal, like being persistent. By contrast, when opportunities seemed unavailable, a stronger fixed theory predicted lower expectations for success and a preference for passive strategies, like simply waiting. We also established the implicit theories' causal role and demonstrated processes explaining how a growth theory leads to higher anticipated success. The final two studies examined unemployed people. In Study 5, those with a stronger growth theory chose to engage more in a task about cultivating new opportunities for employment. Study 6 showed that those with a stronger growth theory were more likely to report securing employment 5 months later, even when controlling for motivation-relevant variables, education, and socioeconomic status. They also engaged in more active job-search strategies. These studies offer a novel perspective on when, how, and why people initiate and maintain goal pursuit. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/pspa0000330

  View details for Web of Science ID 000898990700001

  View details for PubMedID 36521117

• An Organizing Framework for Teaching Practices that Can "Expand" the Self and Address Social Identity Concerns EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2022

  View details for DOI 10.1007/s10648-022-09715-z

  View details for Web of Science ID 000884684100001

• Believing that prejudice can change increases children's interest in interracial interactions. Developmental science Pauker, K., Apfelbaum, E. P., Dweck, C. S., Eberhardt, J. L. 1800

  Abstract

  Children begin interacting less across racial lines around middle childhood, but it remains unclear why. We examine the novel possibility that, at that time, children's prejudice theories-their understanding of prejudice as a fixed or malleable attribute-begin to influence their desire for interracial affiliation. We devise immersive behavioral experiences to evaluate when and how prejudice theories affect interracial affiliation. Study 1 measured prejudice theories among 8-13-year-olds (N = 152; 76 White, 76 racial minority) and observed children in a newly-developed social interaction task. In line with our hypothesis, children older than 10 years with stronger malleable-prejudice theories exhibited more interest and affiliation in a simulated cross- (versus same-race) interaction, regardless of their preexisting prejudice level. Study 2 randomly assigned children to listen to a fixed- or malleable-prejudice theory story before engaging in a real, first-time interaction with a same- or cross-race partner at a different school via live video-stream (N = 150; 96 White, 54 racial minority). The malleable theory increased children's interest in further interaction with their cross-race partner. These findings highlight the promise of malleable-prejudice theories for sustaining positive interracial relationships during a critical developmental window-when the frequency of cross-race friendships typically declines. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/desc.13233

  View details for PubMedID 35023598

• The Amygdala and the Prefrontal Cortex: The Co-construction of Intelligent Decision-Making PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW Dixon, M., Dweck, C. S. 2021

  Abstract

  A revised view of the amygdala, its relationship with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and its role in intelligent human decision-making is proposed. Based on recent findings, we present a framework in which the amygdala plays a central role in the value computations that determine which goals are worth pursuing, while the PFC plays a central role in generating and evaluating possible action plans to realize these goals. We suggest that the amygdala and PFC continuously work together during decision-making and goal pursuit as individuals compute and recompute the value and likelihood of different goals while interacting with a dynamic world. Once seen as chiefly involved in simple stimulus-outcome associative learning, the amygdala is shown to play a sophisticated role in human decision-making by contributing to the moment-by-moment integration of multiple costs and benefits to determine optimal choices. We discuss implications of the framework for brain development, emotion regulation, intelligence, and psychopathology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/rev0000339

  View details for Web of Science ID 000735535200001

  View details for PubMedID 34968135

• Teacher Mindsets Help Explain Where a Growth-Mindset Intervention Does and Doesn't Work. Psychological science Yeager, D. S., Carroll, J. M., Buontempo, J., Cimpian, A., Woody, S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Murray, J., Mhatre, P., Kersting, N., Hulleman, C., Kudym, M., Murphy, M., Duckworth, A. L., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 1800: 9567976211028984

  Abstract

  A growth-mindset intervention teaches the belief that intellectual abilities can be developed. Where does the intervention work best? Prior research examined school-level moderators using data from the National Study of Learning Mindsets (NSLM), which delivered a short growth-mindset intervention during the first year of high school. In the present research, we used data from the NSLM to examine moderation by teachers' mindsets and answer a new question: Can students independently implement their growth mindsets in virtually any classroom culture, or must students' growth mindsets be supported by their teacher's own growth mindsets (i.e., the mindset-plus-supportive-context hypothesis)? The present analysis (9,167 student records matched with 223 math teachers) supported the latter hypothesis. This result stood up to potentially confounding teacher factors and to a conservative Bayesian analysis. Thus, sustaining growth-mindset effects may require contextual supports that allow the proffered beliefs to take root and flourish.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/09567976211028984

  View details for PubMedID 34936529

• How Can We Inspire Nations of Learners? An Investigation of Growth Mindset and Challenge-Seeking in Two Countries AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST Rege, M., Hanselman, P., Solli, I., Dweck, C. S., Ludvigsen, S., Bettinger, E., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Walton, G., Duckworth, A., Yeager, D. S. 2021; 76 (5): 755-767

  Abstract

  Here we evaluate the potential for growth mindset interventions (that teach students that intellectual abilities can be developed) to inspire adolescents to be "learners"-that is, to seek out challenging learning experiences. In a previous analysis, the U.S. National Study of Learning Mindsets (NSLM) showed that a growth mindset could improve the grades of lower-achieving adolescents, and, in an exploratory analysis, increase enrollment in advanced math courses across achievement levels. Yet, the importance of being a "learner" in today's global economy requires clarification and replication of potential challenge-seeking effects, as well as an investigation of the school affordances that make intervention effects on challenge-seeking possible. To this end, the present article presents new analyses of the U.S. NSLM (N = 14,472) to (a) validate a standardized, behavioral measure of challenge-seeking (the "make-a-math worksheet" task), and (b) show that the growth mindset treatment increased challenge-seeking on this task. Second, a new experiment conducted with nearly all schools in 2 counties in Norway, the U-say experiment (N = 6,541), replicated the effects of the growth mindset intervention on the behavioral challenge-seeking task and on increased advanced math course-enrollment rates. Treated students took (and subsequently passed) advanced math at a higher rate. Critically, the U-say experiment provided the first direct evidence that a structural factor-school policies governing when and how students opt in to advanced math-can afford students the possibility of profiting from a growth mindset intervention or not. These results highlight the importance of motivational research that goes beyond grades or performance alone and focuses on challenge-seeking. The findings also call attention to the affordances of school contexts that interact with student motivation to promote better achievement and economic trajectories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/amp0000647

  View details for Web of Science ID 000718373900004

  View details for PubMedID 33180534

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC8113339

• Gender Categories as Dual-Character Concepts? Cognitive science Guo, C., Dweck, C. S., Markman, E. M. 2021; 45 (5): e12954

  Abstract

  Seminal work by Knobe, Prasada, and Newman (2013) distinguished a set of concepts, which they named "dual-character concepts." Unlike traditional concepts, they require two distinct criteria for determining category membership. For example, the prototypical dual-character concept "artist" has both a concrete dimension of artistic skills, and an abstract dimension of aesthetic sensibility and values. Therefore, someone can be a good artist on the concrete dimension but not truly an artist on the abstract dimension. Does this analysis capture people's understanding of cornerstone social categories, such as gender, around which society and everyday life have traditionally been organized? Gender, too, may be conceived as having not only a concrete dimension but also a distinct dimension of abstract norms and values. As with dual-character concepts, violations of abstract norms and values may result in someone being judged as not truly a man/woman. Here, we provide the first empirical assessment of applying the dual-character framework to people's conception of gender. We found that, on some measures that primarily relied on metalinguistic cues, gender concepts did indeed resemble dual-character concepts. However, on other measures that depicted transgressions of traditional gender norms, neither "man" nor "woman" appeared dual-character-like, in that participants did not disqualify people from being truly a man or truly a woman. In a series of follow-up studies, we examined whether moral norms have come to replace gender role norms for the abstract dimension. Implications for the evolution of concepts and categories are explored.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/cogs.12954

  View details for PubMedID 34018232

• Teacher- versus researcher-provided affirmation effects on students' task engagement and positive perceptions of teachers JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES Smith, E. N., Rozek, C. S., Manke, K. J., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2021

  View details for DOI 10.1111/josi.12417

  View details for Web of Science ID 000611904000001

• Beliefs, affordances, and adolescent development: Lessons from a decade of growth mindset interventions. Advances in child development and behavior Hecht, C. A., Yeager, D. S., Dweck, C. S., Murphy, M. C. 2021; 61: 169-197

  Abstract

  Beliefs play a central role in human development. For instance, a growth mindset-a belief about the malleability of intelligence-can shape how adolescents interpret and respond to academic difficulties and how they subsequently navigate the educational system. But do usually-adaptive beliefs have the same effects for adolescents regardless of the contexts they are in? Answering this question can reveal new insights into classic developmental questions about continuity and change. Here we present the Mindset*Context framework and we apply this model to the instructive case of growth mindset interventions. We show that teaching students a growth mindset is most effective in educational contexts that provide affordances for a growth mindset; that is, contexts that permit and encourage students to view ability as developable and to act on that belief. This evidence contradicts the "beliefs alone" hypothesis, which holds that teaching adolescents a growth mindset is enough and that students can profit from these beliefs in almost any context, even unsupportive ones. The Mindset*Context framework leads to the realization that in order to produce more widespread and lasting change, we must complement the belief-changing interventions that have been aimed at students with new interventions that guide teachers toward classroom policies and practices that allow students' growth mindset beliefs to take root and yield benefits.

  View details for DOI 10.1016/bs.acdb.2021.04.004

  View details for PubMedID 34266564

• A Growth Mindset about Intelligence HANDBOOK OF WISE INTERVENTIONS Dweck, C. S., Yeager, D. S. edited by Walton, G. M., Crum, A. J. 2021: 9-35

  View details for Web of Science ID 000647636100002

• What Can Be Learned From Growth Mindset Controversies? AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST Yeager, D. S., Dweck, C. S. 2020; 75 (9): 1269–84

  Abstract

  The growth mindset is the belief that intellectual ability can be developed. This article seeks to answer recent questions about growth mindset, such as: Does a growth mindset predict student outcomes? Do growth mindset interventions work, and work reliably? Are the effect sizes meaningful enough to merit attention? And can teachers successfully instill a growth mindset in students? After exploring the important lessons learned from these questions, the article concludes that large-scale studies, including preregistered replications and studies conducted by third parties (such as international governmental agencies), justify confidence in growth mindset research. Mindset effects, however, are meaningfully heterogeneous across individuals and contexts. The article describes three recent advances that have helped the field to learn from this heterogeneity: standardized measures and interventions, studies designed specifically to identify where growth mindset interventions do not work (and why), and a conceptual framework for anticipating and interpreting moderation effects. The next generation of mindset research can build on these advances, for example by beginning to understand and perhaps change classroom contexts in ways that can make interventions more effective. Throughout, the authors reflect on lessons that can enrich metascientific perspectives on replication and generalization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/amp0000794

  View details for Web of Science ID 000604915200016

  View details for PubMedID 33382294

• A strategic mindset: An orientation toward strategic behavior during goal pursuit. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Chen, P., Powers, J. T., Katragadda, K. R., Cohen, G. L., Dweck, C. S. 2020

  Abstract

  Many attractive jobs in today's world require people to take on new challenges and figure out how to master them. As with any challenging goal, this involves systematic strategy use. Here we ask: Why are some people more likely to take a strategic stance toward their goals, and can this tendency be cultivated? To address these questions, we introduce the idea of a domain-general "strategic mindset." This mindset involves asking oneself strategy-eliciting questions, such as "What can I do to help myself?", "How else can I do this?", or "Is there a way to do this even better?", in the face of challenges or insufficient progress. In three studies (n = 864), people who scored higher on (or were primed with) a strategic mindset reported using more metacognitive strategies; in turn, they obtained higher college grade point averages (GPAs) (Study 1); reported greater progress toward their professional, educational, health, and fitness goals (Study 2); and responded to a challenging timed laboratory task by practicing it more and performing it faster (Study 3). We differentiated a strategic mindset from general self-efficacy, self-control, grit, and growth mindsets and showed that it explained unique variance in people's use of metacognitive strategies. These findings suggest that being strategic entails more than just having specific metacognitive skills-it appears to also entail an orientation toward seeking and employing them.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.2002529117

  View details for PubMedID 32522882

• A Growth Mind-Set Intervention Improves Interest but Not Academic Performance in the Field of Computer Science SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE Burnette, J. L., Hoyt, C. L., Russell, V., Lawson, B., Dweck, C. S., Finkel, E. 2020; 11 (1): 107–16

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1948550619841631

  View details for Web of Science ID 000507062900012

• Preschoolers Find Ways to Resist Temptation After Learning That Willpower Can Be Energizing. Developmental science Haimovitz, K., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2019: e12905

  Abstract

  Children's tendency to delay gratification predicts important life outcomes, yet little is known about how to enhance delay of gratification other than by teaching task-specific strategies. The present research investigated the effect of exposing children to a model who experiences the exertion of willpower as energizing. In two experiments, 86 4-5 year-olds were read a story that represented the exertion of willpower as energizing or a control story before taking part in a delay-of-gratification task. Children exposed to a storybook character who struggled with waiting, but eventually found it energizing, spontaneously generated more delay strategies, which enhanced delay. By promoting the search for effective strategies, this approach provides a promising direction for efforts to foster self-regulation early in development.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/desc.12905

  View details for PubMedID 31529554

• Cultures of Genius at Work: Organizational Mindsets Predict Cultural Norms, Trust, and Commitment. Personality & social psychology bulletin Canning, E. A., Murphy, M. C., Emerson, K. T., Chatman, J. A., Dweck, C. S., Kray, L. J. 2019: 146167219872473

  Abstract

  Three studies examine how organizational mindset-whether a company is perceived to view talent as fixed or malleable-functions as a core belief that predicts organizational culture and employees' trust and commitment. In Study 1, Fortune 500 company mission statements were coded for mindset language and paired with Glassdoor culture data. Workers perceived a more negative culture at fixed (vs. growth) mindset companies. Study 2 experimentally manipulated organizational mindset and found that people evaluated fixed (vs. growth) mindset companies as having more negative culture norms and forecasted that employees would experience less trust and commitment. Study 3 confirmed these findings from more than 500 employees of seven Fortune 1000 companies. Employees who perceived their organization to endorse a fixed (vs. growth) mindset reported that their company's culture was characterized by less collaboration, innovation, and integrity, and they reported less organizational trust and commitment. These findings suggest that organizational mindset shapes organizational culture.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167219872473

  View details for PubMedID 31502926

• Mindsets: A View From Two Eras PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Dweck, C. S., Yeager, D. S. 2019; 14 (3): 481–96

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691618804166

  View details for Web of Science ID 000468290800011

• Mindsets: A View From Two Eras. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Dweck, C. S., Yeager, D. S. 2019: 1745691618804166

  Abstract

  A growth mindset is the belief that human capacities are not fixed but can be developed over time, and mindset research examines the power of such beliefs to influence human behavior. This article offers two personal perspectives on mindset research across two eras. Given recent changes in the field, the authors represent different generations of researchers, each focusing on different issues and challenges, but both committed to "era-bridging" research. The first author traces mindset research from its systematic examination of how mindsets affect challenge seeking and resilience, through the ways in which mindsets influence the formation of judgments and stereotypes. The second author then describes how mindset research entered the era of field experiments and replication science, and how researchers worked to create reliable interventions to address underachievement-including a national experiment in the United States. The authors conclude that there is much more to learn but that the studies to date illustrate how an era-bridging program of research can continue to be generative and relevant to new generations of scholars.

  View details for PubMedID 30707853

• The Choice to Make a Difference. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Dweck, C. S. 2019; 14 (1): 21-25

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691618804180

  View details for PubMedID 30799749

• Motivation: A Valuation Systems Perspective Uusberg, A., Suri, G., Dweck, C., Gross, J. J. edited by Neta, M., Haas, I. J. SPRINGER INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHING AG. 2019: 161–92

  View details for DOI 10.1007/978-3-030-27473-3_6

  View details for Web of Science ID 000537307300006

• A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P. n., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R. n., Muller, C. n., Tipton, E. n., Schneider, B. n., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., Paunesku, D. n., Romero, C. n., Flint, K. n., Roberts, A. n., Trott, J. n., Iachan, R. n., Buontempo, J. n., Yang, S. M., Carvalho, C. M., Hahn, P. R., Gopalan, M. n., Mhatre, P. n., Ferguson, R. n., Duckworth, A. L., Dweck, C. S. 2019

  Abstract

  A global priority for the behavioural sciences is to develop cost-effective, scalable interventions that could improve the academic outcomes of adolescents at a population level, but no such interventions have so far been evaluated in a population-generalizable sample. Here we show that a short (less than one hour), online growth mindset intervention-which teaches that intellectual abilities can be developed-improved grades among lower-achieving students and increased overall enrolment to advanced mathematics courses in a nationally representative sample of students in secondary education in the United States. Notably, the study identified school contexts that sustained the effects of the growth mindset intervention: the intervention changed grades when peer norms aligned with the messages of the intervention. Confidence in the conclusions of this study comes from independent data collection and processing, pre-registration of analyses, and corroboration of results by a blinded Bayesian analysis.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y

  View details for PubMedID 31391586

• The Choice to Make a Difference PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Dweck, C. S. 2019; 14 (1): 21–25

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691618804180

  View details for Web of Science ID 000456462500005

• Implicit Theories of Interest: Finding Your Passion or Developing It? PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE O'Keefe, P. A., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2018; 29 (10): 1653–64

  Abstract

  People are often told to find their passion, as though passions and interests are preformed and must simply be discovered. This idea, however, has hidden motivational implications. Five studies examined implicit theories of interest-the idea that personal interests are relatively fixed (fixed theory) or developed (growth theory). Whether assessed or experimentally induced, a fixed theory was more likely to dampen interest in areas outside people's existing interests (Studies 1-3). Individuals endorsing a fixed theory were also more likely to anticipate boundless motivation when passions were found, not anticipating possible difficulties (Study 4). Moreover, when it became difficult to engage in a new interest, interest flagged significantly more for people induced to hold a fixed rather than a growth theory of interest (Study 5). Urging people to find their passion may lead them to put all their eggs in one basket but then to drop that basket when it becomes difficult to carry.

  View details for PubMedID 30188804

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC6180666

• What Happens After Prejudice Is Confronted in the Workplace? How Mindsets Affect Minorities' and Women's Outlook on Future Social Relations JOURNAL OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Rattan, A., Dweck, C. S. 2018; 103 (6): 676–87

  Abstract

  Organizations are increasingly concerned with fostering successful diversity. Toward this end, diversity research has focused on trying to reduce prejudice and biased behavior. But what happens when prejudice in the workplace inevitably occurs? Research also needs to focus on whether recovery and repair of social relations after expressions of prejudice are possible. To begin investigating this question, we develop a new framework for understanding reactions to prejudice in the workplace. We hypothesized that when women and minorities choose to confront a prejudiced comment in a workplace interaction (vs. remain silent) and hold a growth (vs. fixed) mindset-the belief that others can change-they remain more positive in their subsequent outlook in the workplace. Studies 1a, 1b, and 2 used hypothetical workplace scenarios to expose participants to someone who expressed bias; Study 3 ensured real-world relevance by eliciting retrospective accounts of workplace bias from African American employees. Across studies, women and minorities who confronted the perpetrator of prejudice exhibited more positive subsequent expectations of that coworker when they held a growth mindset. It is important that these more positive expectations were associated with reports of greater workplace belonging (Study 2), ratings of improved relations with coworkers who had displayed bias (Study 3), and greater workplace satisfaction (Studies 2-3). Thus, a growth mindset contributes to successful workplace diversity by protecting women's and minorities' outlook when they opt to confront expressions of bias. (PsycINFO Database Record

  View details for PubMedID 29517252

• Parent Praise to Toddlers Predicts Fourth Grade Academic Achievement via Children's Incremental Mindsets DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Gunderson, E. A., Sorhagen, N. S., Gripshover, S. J., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., Levine, S. C. 2018; 54 (3): 397–409

  Abstract

  In a previous study, parent-child praise was observed in natural interactions at home when children were 1, 2, and 3 years of age. Children who received a relatively high proportion of process praise (e.g., praise for effort and strategies) showed stronger incremental motivational frameworks, including a belief that intelligence can be developed and a greater desire for challenge, when they were in 2nd or 3rd grade (Gunderson et al., 2013). The current study examines these same children's (n = 53) academic achievement 1 to 2 years later, in 4th grade. Results provide the first evidence that process praise to toddlers predicts children's academic achievement (in math and reading comprehension) 7 years later, in elementary school, via their incremental motivational frameworks. Further analysis of these motivational frameworks shows that process praise had its effect on fourth grade achievement through children's trait beliefs (e.g., believing that intelligence is fixed vs. malleable), rather than through their learning goals (e.g., preference for easy vs. challenging tasks). Implications for the socialization of motivation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

  View details for PubMedID 29172567

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC5826820

• Testing the impact and durability of a group malleability intervention in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Goldenberg, A., Cohen-Chen, S., Goyer, J., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., Halperin, E. 2018; 115 (4): 696–701

  Abstract

  Fostering perceptions of group malleability (teaching people that groups are capable of change and improvement) has been shown to lead to short-term improvements in intergroup attitudes and willingness to make concessions in intractable conflicts. The present study, a field intervention involving 508 Israelis from three locations in Israel, replicated and substantially extended those findings by testing the durability of a group malleability intervention during a 6-month period of frequent violence. Three different 5-hour-long interventions were administered as leadership workshops. The group malleability intervention was compared with a neutral coping intervention and, importantly, with a state-of-the-art perspective-taking intervention. The group malleability intervention proved superior to the coping intervention in improving attitudes, hope, and willingness to make concessions, and maintained this advantage during a 6-month period of intense intergroup conflict. Moreover, it was as good as, and in some respects superior to, the perspective-taking intervention. These findings provide a naturalistic examination of the potential of group malleability interventions to increase openness to conflict resolution.

  View details for PubMedID 29311299

• Why Interventions to Influence Adolescent Behavior Often Fail but Could Succeed PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Yeager, D. S., Dahl, R. E., Dweck, C. S. 2018; 13 (1): 101–22

  Abstract

  We provide a developmental perspective on two related issues: (a) why traditional preventative school-based interventions work reasonably well for children but less so for middle adolescents and (b) why some alternative approaches to interventions show promise for middle adolescents. We propose the hypothesis that traditional interventions fail when they do not align with adolescents' enhanced desire to feel respected and be accorded status; however, interventions that do align with this desire can motivate internalized, positive behavior change. We review examples of promising interventions that (a) directly harness the desire for status and respect, (b) provide adolescents with more respectful treatment from adults, or (c) lessen the negative influence of threats to status and respect. These examples are in the domains of unhealthy snacking, middle school discipline, and high school aggression. Discussion centers on implications for basic developmental science and for improvements to youth policy and practice.

  View details for PubMedID 29232535

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC5758430

• From needs to goals and representations: Foundations for a unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. Psychological review Dweck, C. S. 2017; 124 (6): 689-719

  Abstract

  Drawing on both classic and current approaches, I propose a theory that integrates motivation, personality, and development within one framework, using a common set of principles and mechanisms. The theory begins by specifying basic needs and by suggesting how, as people pursue need-fulfilling goals, they build mental representations of their experiences (beliefs, representations of emotions, and representations of action tendencies). I then show how these needs, goals, and representations can serve as the basis of both motivation and personality, and can help to integrate disparate views of personality. The article builds on this framework to provide a new perspective on development, particularly on the forces that propel development and the roles of nature and nurture. I argue throughout that the focus on representations provides an important entry point for change and growth. (PsycINFO Database Record

  View details for DOI 10.1037/rev0000082

  View details for PubMedID 28933872

• The Origins of Children's Growth and Fixed Mindsets: New Research and a New Proposal. Child development Haimovitz, K., Dweck, C. S. 2017; 88 (6): 1849-1859

  Abstract

  Children's mindsets about intelligence (as a quality they can grow vs. a trait they cannot change) robustly influence their motivation and achievement. How do adults foster "growth mindsets" in children? One might assume that adults act in ways that communicate their own mindsets to children. However, new research shows that many parents and teachers with growth mindsets are not passing them on. This article presents a new perspective on why this is the case, and reviews research on adult practices that do instill growth mindsets, concluding that a sustained focus on the process of learning is critical. After discussing key implications and promising future directions, we consider the topic in the context of important societal issues, like high-stakes testing.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12955

  View details for PubMedID 28905371

• Rethinking people's conceptions of mental life PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Weisman, K., Dweck, C. S., Markman, E. M. 2017; 114 (43): 11374–79

  Abstract

  How do people make sense of the emotions, sensations, and cognitive abilities that make up mental life? Pioneering work on the dimensions of mind perception has been interpreted as evidence that people consider mental life to have two core components-experience (e.g., hunger, joy) and agency (e.g., planning, self-control) [Gray HM, et al. (2007) Science 315:619]. We argue that this conclusion is premature: The experience-agency framework may capture people's understanding of the differences among different beings (e.g., dogs, humans, robots, God) but not how people parse mental life itself. Inspired by Gray et al.'s bottom-up approach, we conducted four large-scale studies designed to assess people's conceptions of mental life more directly. This led to the discovery of an organization that differs strikingly from the experience-agency framework: Instead of a broad distinction between experience and agency, our studies consistently revealed three fundamental components of mental life-suites of capacities related to the body, the heart, and the mind-with each component encompassing related aspects of both experience and agency. This body-heart-mind framework distinguishes itself from Gray et al.'s experience-agency framework by its clear and importantly different implications for dehumanization, moral reasoning, and other important social phenomena.

  View details for PubMedID 29073059

• Is Psychology Headed in the Right Direction? Yes, No, and Maybe. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Dweck, C. S. 2017; 12 (4): 656-659

  Abstract

  In this piece, I first celebrate the growing contribution of psychology to the understanding and solution of pressing social issues. Then, despite these exciting developments, I worry about whether we have created a field that our students want to spend their lives in, and I suggest concerns that might fruitfully be addressed. Finally, I worry about the potential fragmentation of psychology and applaud programs of research that have shown the unique and important contributions to be made when the methods and perspectives of neuroscience, cognitive science, and computational modeling are integrated with those of social, personality, and developmental psychology. In sum, although this is an exciting time for our field, we can do more to ensure its vigor and its truly interdisciplinary nature as we move forward.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691616687747

  View details for PubMedID 28727965

• Making Intergroup Contact More Fruitful: Enhancing Cooperation Between Palestinian and Jewish-Israeli Adolescents by Fostering Beliefs About Group Malleability SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE Goldenberg, A., Endevelt, K., Ran, S., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., Halperin, E. 2017; 8 (1): 3-10

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1948550616672851

  View details for Web of Science ID 000392867300001

• Is Education a Fundamental Right? People's Lay Theories About Intellectual Potential Drive Their Positions on Education. Personality & social psychology bulletin Savani, K. n., Rattan, A. n., Dweck, C. S. 2017; 43 (9): 1284–95

  Abstract

  Does every child have a fundamental right to receive a high-quality education? We propose that people's beliefs about whether "nearly everyone" or "only some people" have high intellectual potential drive their positions on education. Three studies found that the more people believed that nearly everyone has high potential, the more they viewed education as a fundamental human right. Furthermore, people who viewed education as a fundamental right, in turn (a) were more likely to support the institution of free public education, (b) were more concerned upon learning that students in the country were not performing well academically compared with students in peer nations, and (c) were more likely to support redistributing educational funds more equitably across wealthier and poorer school districts. The studies show that people's beliefs about intellectual potential can influence their positions on education, which can affect the future quality of life for countless students.

  View details for PubMedID 28903678

• Psychologically authentic versus inauthentic replication attempts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Bryan, C. J., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 113 (43): E6548

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1609625113

  View details for PubMedID 27791024

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC5087036

• Growth mindset tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Claro, S., Paunesku, D., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 113 (31): 8664-8668

  Abstract

  Two largely separate bodies of empirical research have shown that academic achievement is influenced by structural factors, such as socioeconomic background, and psychological factors, such as students' beliefs about their abilities. In this research, we use a nationwide sample of high school students from Chile to investigate how these factors interact on a systemic level. Confirming prior research, we find that family income is a strong predictor of achievement. Extending prior research, we find that a growth mindset (the belief that intelligence is not fixed and can be developed) is a comparably strong predictor of achievement and that it exhibits a positive relationship with achievement across all of the socioeconomic strata in the country. Furthermore, we find that students from lower-income families were less likely to hold a growth mindset than their wealthier peers, but those who did hold a growth mindset were appreciably buffered against the deleterious effects of poverty on achievement: students in the lowest 10th percentile of family income who exhibited a growth mindset showed academic performance as high as that of fixed mindset students from the 80th income percentile. These results suggest that students' mindsets may temper or exacerbate the effects of economic disadvantage on a systemic level.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1608207113

  View details for PubMedID 27432947

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4978255

• Teaching a lay theory before college narrows achievement gaps at scale PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Yeager, D. S., Walton, G. M., Brady, S. T., Akcinar, E. N., Paunesku, D., Keane, L., Kamentz, D., Ritter, G., Duckworth, A. L., Urstein, R., Gomez, E. M., Markus, H. R., Cohen, G. L., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 113 (24): E3341-E3348

  Abstract

  Previous experiments have shown that college students benefit when they understand that challenges in the transition to college are common and improvable and, thus, that early struggles need not portend a permanent lack of belonging or potential. Could such an approach-called a lay theory intervention-be effective before college matriculation? Could this strategy reduce a portion of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic achievement gaps for entire institutions? Three double-blind experiments tested this possibility. Ninety percent of first-year college students from three institutions were randomly assigned to complete single-session, online lay theory or control materials before matriculation (n > 9,500). The lay theory interventions raised first-year full-time college enrollment among students from socially and economically disadvantaged backgrounds exiting a high-performing charter high school network or entering a public flagship university (experiments 1 and 2) and, at a selective private university, raised disadvantaged students' cumulative first-year grade point average (experiment 3). These gains correspond to 31-40% reductions of the raw (unadjusted) institutional achievement gaps between students from disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged backgrounds at those institutions. Further, follow-up surveys suggest that the interventions improved disadvantaged students' overall college experiences, promoting use of student support services and the development of friendship networks and mentor relationships. This research therefore provides a basis for further tests of the generalizability of preparatory lay theories interventions and of their potential to reduce social inequality and improve other major life transitions.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1524360113

  View details for PubMedID 27247409

• What Predicts Children's Fixed and Growth Intelligence Mind-Sets? Not Their Parents' Views of Intelligence but Their Parents' Views of Failure PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Haimovitz, K., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 27 (6): 859-869

  Abstract

  Children's intelligence mind-sets (i.e., their beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed or malleable) robustly influence their motivation and learning. Yet, surprisingly, research has not linked parents' intelligence mind-sets to their children's. We tested the hypothesis that a different belief of parents-their failure mind-sets-may be more visible to children and therefore more prominent in shaping their beliefs. In Study 1, we found that parents can view failure as debilitating or enhancing, and that these failure mind-sets predict parenting practices and, in turn, children's intelligence mind-sets. Study 2 probed more deeply into how parents display failure mind-sets. In Study 3a, we found that children can indeed accurately perceive their parents' failure mind-sets but not their parents' intelligence mind-sets. Study 3b showed that children's perceptions of their parents' failure mind-sets also predicted their own intelligence mind-sets. Finally, Study 4 showed a causal effect of parents' failure mind-sets on their responses to their children's hypothetical failure. Overall, parents who see failure as debilitating focus on their children's performance and ability rather than on their children's learning, and their children, in turn, tend to believe that intelligence is fixed rather than malleable.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797616639727

  View details for Web of Science ID 000378420100009

  View details for PubMedID 27113733

• Using Design Thinking to Improve Psychological Interventions: The Case of the Growth Mindset During the Transition to High School JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Yeager, D. S., Romero, C., Paunesku, D., Hulleman, C. S., Schneider, B., Hinojosa, C., Lee, H. Y., O'Brien, J., Flint, K., Roberts, A., Trott, J., Greene, D., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 108 (3): 374-391

  Abstract

  There are many promising psychological interventions on the horizon, but there is no clear methodology for preparing them to be scaled up. Drawing on design thinking, the present research formalizes a methodology for redesigning and tailoring initial interventions. We test the methodology using the case of fixed versus growth mindsets during the transition to high school. Qualitative inquiry and rapid, iterative, randomized "A/B" experiments were conducted with ~3,000 participants to inform intervention revisions for this population. Next, two experimental evaluations showed that the revised growth mindset intervention was an improvement over previous versions in terms of short-term proxy outcomes (Study 1, N=7,501), and it improved 9th grade core-course GPA and reduced D/F GPAs for lower achieving students when delivered via the Internet under routine conditions with ~95% of students at 10 schools (Study 2, N=3,676). Although the intervention could still be improved even further, the current research provides a model for how to improve and scale interventions that begin to address pressing educational problems. It also provides insight into how to teach a growth mindset more effectively.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/edu0000098

  View details for Web of Science ID 000373687300007

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4981081

• Using Design Thinking to Improve Psychological Interventions: The Case of the Growth Mindset During the Transition to High School. Journal of educational psychology Yeager, D. S., Romero, C., Paunesku, D., Hulleman, C. S., Schneider, B., Hinojosa, C., Lee, H. Y., O'Brien, J., Flint, K., Roberts, A., Trott, J., Greene, D., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 108 (3): 374-391

  Abstract

  There are many promising psychological interventions on the horizon, but there is no clear methodology for preparing them to be scaled up. Drawing on design thinking, the present research formalizes a methodology for redesigning and tailoring initial interventions. We test the methodology using the case of fixed versus growth mindsets during the transition to high school. Qualitative inquiry and rapid, iterative, randomized "A/B" experiments were conducted with ~3,000 participants to inform intervention revisions for this population. Next, two experimental evaluations showed that the revised growth mindset intervention was an improvement over previous versions in terms of short-term proxy outcomes (Study 1, N=7,501), and it improved 9th grade core-course GPA and reduced D/F GPAs for lower achieving students when delivered via the Internet under routine conditions with ~95% of students at 10 schools (Study 2, N=3,676). Although the intervention could still be improved even further, the current research provides a model for how to improve and scale interventions that begin to address pressing educational problems. It also provides insight into how to teach a growth mindset more effectively.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/edu0000098

  View details for PubMedID 27524832

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4981081

• Understanding overconfidence: Theories of intelligence, preferential attention, and distorted self-assessment JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Ehrlinger, J., Mitchum, A. L., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 63: 94-100

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2015.11.001

  View details for Web of Science ID 000369212300011

• Mindsets shape consumer behavior JOURNAL OF CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY Murphy, M. C., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 26 (1): 127-136

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jcps.2015.06.005

  View details for Web of Science ID 000368213800012

• Changes in Self-Definition Impede Recovery From Rejection. Personality & social psychology bulletin Howe, L. C., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 42 (1): 54-71

  Abstract

  Previous research highlights how adept people are at emotional recovery after rejection, but less research has examined factors that can prevent full recovery. In five studies, we investigate how changing one's self-definition in response to rejection causes more lasting damage. We demonstrate that people who endorse an entity theory of personality (i.e., personality cannot be changed) report alterations in their self-definitions when reflecting on past rejections (Studies 1, 2, and 3) or imagining novel rejection experiences (Studies 4 and 5). Further, these changes in self-definition hinder post-rejection recovery, causing individuals to feel haunted by their past, that is, to fear the recurrence of rejection and to experience lingering negative affect from the rejection. Thus, beliefs that prompt people to tie experiences of rejection to self-definition cause rejection's impact to linger.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167215612743

  View details for PubMedID 26498977

• Changes in Self-Definition Impede Recovery From Rejection. Personality and social psychology bulletin Howe, L. C., Dweck, C. S. 2016; 42 (1): 54-71

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167215612743

  View details for PubMedID 26498977

• Leveraging Mindsets to Promote Academic Achievement: Policy Recommendations. Perspectives on psychological science Rattan, A., Savani, K., Chugh, D., Dweck, C. S. 2015; 10 (6): 721-726

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691615599383

  View details for PubMedID 26581725

• Leveraging Mindsets to Promote Academic Achievement: Policy Recommendations. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Rattan, A., Savani, K., Chugh, D., Dweck, C. S. 2015; 10 (6): 721-6

  Abstract

  The United States must improve its students' educational achievement. Race, gender, and social class gaps persist, and, overall, U.S. students rank poorly among peers globally. Scientific research shows that students' psychology-their "academic mindsets"-have a critical role in educational achievement. Yet policymakers have not taken full advantage of cost-effective and well-validated mindset interventions. In this article, we present two key academic mindsets. The first, a growth mindset, refers to the belief that intelligence can be developed over time. The second, a belonging mindset, refers to the belief that people like you belong in your school or in a given academic field. Extensive research shows that fostering these mindsets can improve students' motivation; raise grades; and reduce racial, gender, and social class gaps. Of course, mindsets are not a panacea, but with proper implementation they can be an excellent point of entry. We show how policy at all levels (federal, state, and local) can leverage mindsets to lift the nation's educational outcomes.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/1745691615599383

  View details for PubMedID 26581725

• Mind-Set Interventions Are a Scalable Treatment for Academic Underachievement PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., Dweck, C. S. 2015; 26 (6): 784-793

  Abstract

  The efficacy of academic-mind-set interventions has been demonstrated by small-scale, proof-of-concept interventions, generally delivered in person in one school at a time. Whether this approach could be a practical way to raise school achievement on a large scale remains unknown. We therefore delivered brief growth-mind-set and sense-of-purpose interventions through online modules to 1,594 students in 13 geographically diverse high schools. Both interventions were intended to help students persist when they experienced academic difficulty; thus, both were predicted to be most beneficial for poorly performing students. This was the case. Among students at risk of dropping out of high school (one third of the sample), each intervention raised students' semester grade point averages in core academic courses and increased the rate at which students performed satisfactorily in core courses by 6.4 percentage points. We discuss implications for the pipeline from theory to practice and for education reform.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797615571017

  View details for Web of Science ID 000355857100010

  View details for PubMedID 25862544

• Growth. British journal of educational psychology Dweck, C. S. 2015; 85 (2): 242-245

  View details for DOI 10.1111/bjep.12072

  View details for PubMedID 25973689

• Implicit Theories About Willpower Predict Self-Regulation and Grades in Everyday Life JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Job, V., Walton, G. M., Bernecker, K., Dweck, C. S. 2015; 108 (4): 637-647

  Abstract

  Laboratory research shows that when people believe that willpower is an abundant (rather than highly limited) resource they exhibit better self-control after demanding tasks. However, some have questioned whether this "nonlimited" theory leads to squandering of resources and worse outcomes in everyday life when demands on self-regulation are high. To examine this, we conducted a longitudinal study, assessing students' theories about willpower and tracking their self-regulation and academic performance. As hypothesized, a nonlimited theory predicted better self-regulation (better time management and less procrastination, unhealthy eating, and impulsive spending) for students who faced high self-regulatory demands. Moreover, among students taking a heavy course load, those with a nonlimited theory earned higher grades, which was mediated by less procrastination. These findings contradict the idea that a limited theory helps people allocate their resources more effectively; instead, it is people with the nonlimited theory who self-regulate well in the face of high demands.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/pspp0000014

  View details for Web of Science ID 000352321900008

  View details for PubMedID 25844577

• Reply to Warneken: Social experience can illuminate early-emerging behaviors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Cortes Barragan, R., Dweck, C. S. 2015; 112 (10): E1053-?

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1500252112

  View details for PubMedID 25695973

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4364198

• Emotion beliefs and cognitive behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder. Cognitive behaviour therapy De Castella, K., Goldin, P., Jazaieri, H., Heimberg, R. G., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2015; 44 (2): 128-141

  Abstract

  Despite strong support for the efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for social anxiety disorder (SAD), little is known about mechanisms of change in treatment. Within the context of a randomized controlled trial of CBT, this study examined patients' beliefs about the fixed versus malleable nature of anxiety-their 'implicit theories'-as a key variable in CBT for SAD. Compared to waitlist (n = 29; 58% female), CBT (n = 24; 52% female) led to significantly lower levels of fixed beliefs about anxiety (Mbaseline = 11.70 vs. MPost = 7.08, d = 1.27). These implicit beliefs indirectly explained CBT-related changes in social anxiety symptoms (κ(2) = .28, [95% CI = 0.12, 0.46]). Implicit beliefs also uniquely predicted treatment outcomes when controlling for baseline social anxiety and other kinds of maladaptive beliefs (perceived social costs, perceived social self-efficacy, and maladaptive interpersonal beliefs). Finally, implicit beliefs continued to predict social anxiety symptoms at 12 months post-treatment. These findings suggest that changes in patients' beliefs about their emotions may play an important role in CBT for SAD.

  View details for DOI 10.1080/16506073.2014.974665

  View details for PubMedID 25380179

• Rethinking natural altruism: Simple reciprocal interactions trigger children's benevolence PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Barragan, R. C., Dweck, C. S. 2014; 111 (48): 17071-17074

  Abstract

  A very simple reciprocal activity elicited high degrees of altruism in 1- and 2-y-old children, whereas friendly but nonreciprocal activity yielded little subsequent altruism. In a second study, reciprocity with one adult led 1- and 2-y-olds to provide help to a new person. These results question the current dominant claim that social experiences cannot account for early occurring altruistic behavior. A third study, with preschool-age children, showed that subtle reciprocal cues remain potent elicitors of altruism, whereas a fourth study with preschoolers showed that even a brief reciprocal experience fostered children's expectation of altruism from others. Collectively, the studies suggest that simple reciprocal interactions are a potent trigger of altruism for young children, and that these interactions lead children to believe that their relationships are characterized by mutual care and commitment.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1419408111

  View details for Web of Science ID 000345920800033

  View details for PubMedID 25404334

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4260564

• Who Accepts Responsibility for Their Transgressions? PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Schumann, K., Dweck, C. S. 2014; 40 (12): 1598-1610

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167214552789

  View details for Web of Science ID 000344851000004

• Who accepts responsibility for their transgressions? Personality & social psychology bulletin Schumann, K., Dweck, C. S. 2014; 40 (12): 1598-610

  Abstract

  After committing an offense, transgressors can optimize their chances of reconciling with the victim by accepting responsibility. However, transgressors may be motivated to avoid admitting fault because it can feel threatening to accept blame for harmful behavior. Who, then, is likely to accept responsibility for a transgression? We examined how implicit theories of personality--whether people see personality as malleable (incremental theory) or fixed (entity theory)--influence transgressors' likelihood of accepting responsibility. We argue that incremental theorists may feel less threatened by accepting responsibility because they are more likely to view the situation as an opportunity for them to grow as a person and develop their relationship with the victim. We found support for our predictions across four studies using a combination of real-world and hypothetical offenses, and correlational and experimental methods. These studies therefore identify an important individual difference factor that can lead to more effective responses from transgressors.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167214552789

  View details for PubMedID 25252938

• Addressing the Empathy Deficit: Beliefs About the Malleability of Empathy Predict Effortful Responses When Empathy Is Challenging JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Schumann, K., Zaki, J., Dweck, C. S. 2014; 107 (3): 475-493

  Abstract

  Empathy is often thought to occur automatically. Yet, empathy frequently breaks down when it is difficult or distressing to relate to people in need, suggesting that empathy is often not felt reflexively. Indeed, the United States as a whole is said to be displaying an empathy deficit. When and why does empathy break down, and what predicts whether people will exert effort to experience empathy in challenging contexts? Across 7 studies, we found that people who held a malleable mindset about empathy (believing empathy can be developed) expended greater empathic effort in challenging contexts than did people who held a fixed theory (believing empathy cannot be developed). Specifically, a malleable theory of empathy--whether measured or experimentally induced--promoted (a) more self-reported effort to feel empathy when it is challenging (Study 1); (b) more empathically effortful responses to a person with conflicting views on personally important sociopolitical issues (Studies 2-4); (c) more time spent listening to the emotional personal story of a racial outgroup member (Study 5); and (d) greater willingness to help cancer patients in effortful, face-to-face ways (Study 6). Study 7 revealed a possible reason for this greater empathic effort in challenging contexts: a stronger interest in improving one's empathy. Together, these data suggest that people's mindsets powerfully affect whether they exert effort to empathize when it is needed most, and these data may represent a point of leverage in increasing empathic behaviors on a broad scale.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0036738

  View details for Web of Science ID 000348334600006

  View details for PubMedID 25133727

• Behavioral and neural correlates of increased self-control in the absence of increased willpower PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Magen, E., Kim, B., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., McClure, S. M. 2014; 111 (27): 9786-9791

  Abstract

  People often exert willpower to choose a more valuable delayed reward over a less valuable immediate reward, but using willpower is taxing and frequently fails. In this research, we demonstrate the ability to enhance self-control (i.e., forgoing smaller immediate rewards in favor of larger delayed rewards) without exerting additional willpower. Using behavioral and neuroimaging data, we show that a reframing of rewards (i) reduced the subjective value of smaller immediate rewards relative to larger delayed rewards, (ii) increased the likelihood of choosing the larger delayed rewards when choosing between two real monetary rewards, (iii) reduced the brain reward responses to immediate rewards in the dorsal and ventral striatum, and (iv) reduced brain activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (a correlate of willpower) when participants chose the same larger later rewards across the two choice frames. We conclude that reframing can promote self-control while avoiding the need for additional willpower expenditure.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1408991111

  View details for Web of Science ID 000338514800030

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4103380

• Behavioral and neural correlates of increased self-control in the absence of increased willpower. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Magen, E., Kim, B., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., McClure, S. M. 2014; 111 (27): 9786-9791

  Abstract

  People often exert willpower to choose a more valuable delayed reward over a less valuable immediate reward, but using willpower is taxing and frequently fails. In this research, we demonstrate the ability to enhance self-control (i.e., forgoing smaller immediate rewards in favor of larger delayed rewards) without exerting additional willpower. Using behavioral and neuroimaging data, we show that a reframing of rewards (i) reduced the subjective value of smaller immediate rewards relative to larger delayed rewards, (ii) increased the likelihood of choosing the larger delayed rewards when choosing between two real monetary rewards, (iii) reduced the brain reward responses to immediate rewards in the dorsal and ventral striatum, and (iv) reduced brain activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (a correlate of willpower) when participants chose the same larger later rewards across the two choice frames. We conclude that reframing can promote self-control while avoiding the need for additional willpower expenditure.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1408991111

  View details for PubMedID 24958892

• The far-reaching effects of believing people can change: Implicit theories of personality shape stress, health, and achievement during adolescence. Journal of personality and social psychology Yeager, D. S., Johnson, R., Spitzer, B. J., Trzesniewski, K. H., Powers, J., Dweck, C. S. 2014; 106 (6): 867-884

  Abstract

  The belief that personality is fixed (an entity theory of personality) can give rise to negative reactions to social adversities. Three studies showed that when social adversity is common-at the transition to high school-an entity theory can affect overall stress, health, and achievement. Study 1 showed that an entity theory of personality, measured during the 1st month of 9th grade, predicted more negative immediate reactions to social adversity and, at the end of the year, greater stress, poorer health, and lower grades in school. Studies 2 and 3, both experiments, tested a brief intervention that taught a malleable (incremental) theory of personality-the belief that people can change. The incremental theory group showed less negative reactions to an immediate experience of social adversity and, 8 months later, reported lower overall stress and physical illness. They also achieved better academic performance over the year. Discussion centers on the power of targeted psychological interventions to effect far-reaching and long-term change by shifting interpretations of recurring adversities during developmental transitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0036335

  View details for PubMedID 24841093

• Mechanisms of motivation-cognition interaction: challenges and opportunities COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE Braver, T. S., Krug, M. K., Chiew, K. S., Kool, W., Westbrook, J. A., Clement, N. J., Adcock, R. A., Barch, D. M., Botvinick, M. M., Carver, C. S., Cools, R., Custers, R., Dickinson, A., Dweck, C. S., Fishbach, A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hess, T. M., Isaacowitz, D. M., Mather, M., Murayama, K., Pessoa, L., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., Somerville, L. H. 2014; 14 (2): 443-472

  Abstract

  Recent years have seen a rejuvenation of interest in studies of motivation-cognition interactions arising from many different areas of psychology and neuroscience. The present issue of Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience provides a sampling of some of the latest research from a number of these different areas. In this introductory article, we provide an overview of the current state of the field, in terms of key research developments and candidate neural mechanisms receiving focused investigation as potential sources of motivation-cognition interaction. However, our primary goal is conceptual: to highlight the distinct perspectives taken by different research areas, in terms of how motivation is defined, the relevant dimensions and dissociations that are emphasized, and the theoretical questions being targeted. Together, these distinctions present both challenges and opportunities for efforts aiming toward a more unified and cross-disciplinary approach. We identify a set of pressing research questions calling for this sort of cross-disciplinary approach, with the explicit goal of encouraging integrative and collaborative investigations directed toward them.

  View details for DOI 10.3758/s13415-014-0300-0

  View details for Web of Science ID 000338516800001

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4986920

• Academic and emotional functioning in middle school: The role of implicit theories. Emotion Romero, C., Master, A., Paunesku, D., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2014; 14 (2): 227-234

  Abstract

  Adolescents face many academic and emotional challenges in middle school, but notable differences are evident in how well they adapt. What predicts adolescents' academic and emotional outcomes during this period? One important factor might be adolescents' implicit theories about whether intelligence and emotions can change. The current study examines how these theories affect academic and emotional outcomes. One hundred fifteen students completed surveys throughout middle school, and their grades and course selections were obtained from school records. Students who believed that intelligence could be developed earned higher grades and were more likely to move to advanced math courses over time. Students who believed that emotions could be controlled reported fewer depressive symptoms and, if they began middle school with lower well-being, were more likely to feel better over time. These findings illustrate the power of adolescents' implicit theories, suggesting exciting new pathways for intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0035490

  View details for PubMedID 24512251

• The Role of Forgetting in Undermining Good Intentions PLOS ONE Olson, K. R., Heberlein, A. S., Kensinger, E., Burrows, C., Dweck, C. S., Spelke, E. S., Banaji, M. R. 2013; 8 (11)

  Abstract

  Evaluating others is a fundamental feature of human social interaction-we like those who help more than those who hinder. In the present research, we examined social evaluation of those who not only intentionally performed good and bad actions but also those to whom good things have happened (the lucky) and those to whom bad things have happened (the unlucky). In Experiment 1a, subjects demonstrated a sympathetic preference for the unlucky. However, under cognitive load (Experiment 1b), no such preference was expressed. Further, in Experiments 2a and 2b, when a time delay between impression formation (learning) and evaluation (memory test) was introduced, results showed that younger (Experiment 2a) and older adults (Experiment 2b) showed a significant preference for the lucky. Together these experiments show that a consciously motivated sympathetic preference for those who are unlucky dissolves when memory is disrupted. The observed dissociation provides evidence for the presence of conscious good intentions (favoring the unlucky) and the cognitive compromising of such intentions when memory fails.

  View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0079091

  View details for Web of Science ID 000327254700091

  View details for PubMedID 24236093

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3827336

• Beliefs About Emotion: Links to Emotion Regulation, Well-Being, and Psychological Distress BASIC AND APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY De Castella, K., Goldin, P., Jazaieri, H., Ziv, M., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2013; 35 (6): 497-505

  View details for DOI 10.1080/01973533.2013.840632

  View details for Web of Science ID 000327235400001

• Beliefs about willpower determine the impact of glucose on self-control PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Job, V., Walton, G. M., Bernecker, K., Dweck, C. S. 2013; 110 (37): 14837-14842

  Abstract

  Past research found that the ingestion of glucose can enhance self-control. It has been widely assumed that basic physiological processes underlie this effect. We hypothesized that the effect of glucose also depends on people's theories about willpower. Three experiments, both measuring (experiment 1) and manipulating (experiments 2 and 3) theories about willpower, showed that, following a demanding task, only people who view willpower as limited and easily depleted (a limited resource theory) exhibited improved self-control after sugar consumption. In contrast, people who view willpower as plentiful (a nonlimited resource theory) showed no benefits from glucose-they exhibited high levels of self-control performance with or without sugar boosts. Additionally, creating beliefs about glucose ingestion (experiment 3) did not have the same effect as ingesting glucose for those with a limited resource theory. We suggest that the belief that willpower is limited sensitizes people to cues about their available resources including physiological cues, making them dependent on glucose boosts for high self-control performance.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1313475110

  View details for Web of Science ID 000324125100020

  View details for PubMedID 23959900

• Parent Praise to 1-to 3-Year-Olds Predicts Children's Motivational Frameworks 5Years Later CHILD DEVELOPMENT Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., Levine, S. C. 2013; 84 (5): 1526-1541

  Abstract

  In laboratory studies, praising children's effort encourages them to adopt incremental motivational frameworks--they believe ability is malleable, attribute success to hard work, enjoy challenges, and generate strategies for improvement. In contrast, praising children's inherent abilities encourages them to adopt fixed-ability frameworks. Does the praise parents spontaneously give children at home show the same effects? Although parents' early praise of inherent characteristics was not associated with children's later fixed-ability frameworks, parents' praise of children's effort at 14-38 months (N = 53) did predict incremental frameworks at 7-8 years, suggesting that causal mechanisms identified in experimental work may be operating in home environments.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12064

  View details for Web of Science ID 000323829300005

  View details for PubMedID 23397904

• Implicit Theories of Personality and Attributions of Hostile Intent: A Meta-Analysis, an Experiment, and a Longitudinal Intervention CHILD DEVELOPMENT Yeager, D. S., Miu, A. S., Powers, J., Dweck, C. S. 2013; 84 (5): 1651-1667

  Abstract

  Past research has shown that hostile schemas and adverse experiences predict the hostile attributional bias. This research proposes that seemingly nonhostile beliefs (implicit theories about the malleability of personality) may also play a role in shaping it. Study 1 meta-analytically summarized 11 original tests of this hypothesis (N = 1,659), and showed that among diverse adolescents aged 13-16 a fixed or entity theory about personality traits predicted greater hostile attributional biases, which mediated an effect on aggressive desires. Study 2 experimentally changed adolescents' implicit theories toward a malleable or incremental view and showed a reduction in hostile intent attributions. Study 3 delivered an incremental theory intervention that reduced hostile intent attributions and aggressive desires over an 8-month period.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12062

  View details for Web of Science ID 000323829300013

  View details for PubMedID 23402434

• Implicit theories block negative attributions about a longstanding adversary: The case of Israelis and Arabs JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Levontin, L., Halperin, E., Dweck, C. S. 2013; 49 (4): 670-675

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.02.002

  View details for Web of Science ID 000319852600008

• An Implicit Theories of Personality Intervention Reduces Adolescent Aggression in Response to Victimization and Exclusion CHILD DEVELOPMENT Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Dweck, C. S. 2013; 84 (3): 970-988

  Abstract

  Adolescents are often resistant to interventions that reduce aggression in children. At the same time, they are developing stronger beliefs in the fixed nature of personal characteristics, particularly aggression. The present intervention addressed these beliefs. A randomized field experiment with a diverse sample of Grades 9 and 10 students (ages 14-16, n = 230) tested the impact of a 6-session intervention that taught an incremental theory (a belief in the potential for personal change). Compared to no-treatment and coping skills control groups, the incremental theory group behaved significantly less aggressively and more prosocially 1 month postintervention and exhibited fewer conduct problems 3 months postintervention. The incremental theory and the coping skills interventions also eliminated the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/cdev.12003

  View details for Web of Science ID 000318624500016

  View details for PubMedID 23106262

• Social-cognitive development: A renaissance Navigating the Social World: What infants, children, and other species can teach us Dweck, C. S. 2013
• Parent praise to 1-3 year-olds predicts children’s motivational frameworks 5 years later Child Development Gunderson, L., Gripshover, S., Romero, C., Goldin-Meadow, S., Dweck, C. S., Levine, S. 2013
• How universals and individual differences can inform each other: The case of social expectations in infancy Navigating the Social World: What infants, children, and other species can teach us Johnson, S. C., Dweck, C. S., Dunfield, K. edited by Banaji, M. R., Gelman, S. New York: Oxford. 2013
• Promoting Intergroup Contact by Changing Beliefs: Group Malleability, Intergroup Anxiety, and Contact Motivation EMOTION Halperin, E., Crisp, R. J., Husnu, S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2012; 12 (6): 1192-1195

  Abstract

  Intergroup contact plays a crucial role in moderating long-term conflicts. Unfortunately, the motivation to make contact with outgroup members is usually very low in such conflicts. We hypothesized that one limiting factor is the belief that groups cannot change, which leads to increased intergroup anxiety and decreased contact motivation. To test this hypothesis, we experimentally manipulated beliefs about group malleability in the context of the conflict between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and then assessed intergroup anxiety and motivation to engage in intergroup contact. Turkish Cypriots who were led to believe that groups can change (with no mention of the specific groups involved) reported lower levels of intergroup anxiety and higher motivation to interact and communicate with Greek Cypriots in the future, compared with those who were led to believe that groups cannot change. This effect of group malleability manipulation on contact motivation was mediated by intergroup anxiety.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0028620

  View details for Web of Science ID 000311878700003

  View details for PubMedID 22642339

• Are Implicit Motives the Need to Feel Certain Affect? Motive-Affect Congruence Predicts Relationship Satisfaction PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Job, V., Bernecker, K., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 38 (12): 1552-1565

  Abstract

  The authors test the assumption that the core of implicit motives is the desire for particular affective experiences and that motive satisfaction need not be tied to any particular domain. Using the context of romantic relationships, cross-sectional Study 1 and experimental Study 2 showed that people with a high affiliation motive were more satisfied when they experienced more affiliation-specific affect (calmness and relaxation). However, people with a higher power motive were more satisfied in their relationships when they experienced more power-specific affect (strength and excitement) in these relationships. The results support the idea that an implicit motive involves the desire for specific affective experiences and that frequent experiences of one's preferred affect can lead to enhanced satisfaction and well-being in a domain, even one that is not typically associated with that motive.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167212454920

  View details for Web of Science ID 000311570600002

  View details for PubMedID 22854792

• Mindsets and Human Nature: Promoting Change in the Middle East, the Schoolyard, the Racial Divide, and Willpower AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST Dweck, C. S. 2012; 67 (8): 614-622

  Abstract

  Debates about human nature often revolve around what is built in. However, the hallmark of human nature is how much of a person's identity is not built in; rather, it is humans' great capacity to adapt, change, and grow. This nature versus nurture debate matters-not only to students of human nature-but to everyone. It matters whether people believe that their core qualities are fixed by nature (an entity theory, or fixed mindset) or whether they believe that their qualities can be developed (an incremental theory, or growth mindset). In this article, I show that an emphasis on growth not only increases intellectual achievement but can also advance conflict resolution between long-standing adversaries, decrease even chronic aggression, foster cross-race relations, and enhance willpower. I close by returning to human nature and considering how it is best conceptualized and studied.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0029783

  View details for Web of Science ID 000311008200006

  View details for PubMedID 23163438

• Can Everyone Become Highly Intelligent? Cultural Differences in and Societal Consequences of Beliefs About the Universal Potential for Intelligence JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Rattan, A., Savani, K., Naidu, N. V., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 103 (5): 787-803

  Abstract

  We identify a novel dimension of people's beliefs about intelligence: beliefs about the potential to become highly intelligent. Studies 1-3 found that in U.S. American contexts, people tend to believe that only some people have the potential to become highly intelligent. In contrast, in South Asian Indian contexts, people tend to believe that most people have the potential to become highly intelligent. To examine the implications of these beliefs, Studies 4-6 measured and manipulated Americans' beliefs about the potential for intelligence and found that the belief that everyone can become highly intelligent predicted increased support for policies that distribute resources more equally across advantaged and disadvantaged social groups. These findings suggest that the belief that only some people have the potential to become highly intelligent is a culturally shaped belief, and one that can lead people to oppose policies aimed at redressing social inequality.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0029263

  View details for Web of Science ID 000310042000005

  View details for PubMedID 22800285

• "Prejudiced" Behavior Without Prejudice? Beliefs About the Malleability of Prejudice Affect Interracial Interactions JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., Pauker, K. 2012; 103 (3): 452-471

  Abstract

  Prejudiced behavior is typically seen as emanating from prejudiced attitudes. Eight studies showed that majority-group members' beliefs about prejudice can create seemingly "prejudiced" behaviors above and beyond prejudice measured explicitly (Study 1b) and implicitly (Study 2). Those who believed prejudice was relatively fixed, rather than malleable, were less interested in interracial interactions (Studies 1a-1d), race- or diversity-related activities (Study 1a), and activities to reduce their prejudice (Study 3). They were also more uncomfortable in interracial, but not same-race, interactions (Study 2). Study 4 manipulated beliefs about prejudice and found that a fixed belief, by heightening concerns about revealing prejudice to oneself and others, depressed interest in interracial interactions. Further, though Whites who were taught a fixed belief were more anxious and unfriendly in an interaction with a Black compared with a White individual, Whites who were taught a malleable belief were not (Study 5). Implications for reducing prejudice and improving intergroup relations are discussed.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0028849

  View details for Web of Science ID 000307793500008

  View details for PubMedID 22708626

• Thinking in Categories or Along a Continuum: Consequences for Children's Social Judgments CHILD DEVELOPMENT Master, A., Markman, E. M., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 83 (4): 1145-1163

  Abstract

  Can young children, forming expectations about the social world, capture differences among people without falling into the pitfalls of categorization? Categorization often leads to exaggerating differences between groups and minimizing differences within groups, resulting in stereotyping. Six studies with 4-year-old children (N = 214) characterized schematic faces or photographs as falling along a continuum (really mean to really nice) or divided into categories (mean vs. nice). Using materials that children naturally group into categories (Study 3), the continuum framing prevented the signature pattern of categorization for similarity judgments (Study 1), inferences about behavior and deservingness (Studies 2 and 5), personal liking and play preferences (Study 4), and stable and internal attributions for behavior (Study 6). When children recognize people as members of continua, they may avoid stereotypes.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01774.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000306403700004

  View details for PubMedID 22540868

• Theories of Willpower Affect Sustained Learning PLOS ONE Miller, E. M., Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S., Job, V., Trzesniewski, K. H., McClure, S. M. 2012; 7 (6)

  Abstract

  Building cognitive abilities often requires sustained engagement with effortful tasks. We demonstrate that beliefs about willpower-whether willpower is viewed as a limited or non-limited resource-impact sustained learning on a strenuous mental task. As predicted, beliefs about willpower did not affect accuracy or improvement during the initial phases of learning; however, participants who were led to view willpower as non-limited showed greater sustained learning over the full duration of the task. These findings highlight the interactive nature of motivational and cognitive processes: motivational factors can substantially affect people's ability to recruit their cognitive resources to sustain learning over time.

  View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0038680

  View details for Web of Science ID 000305730900016

  View details for PubMedID 22745675

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3382137

• Race and the Fragility of the Legal Distinction between Juveniles and Adults PLOS ONE Rattan, A., Levine, C. S., Dweck, C. S., Eberhardt, J. L. 2012; 7 (5)

  Abstract

  Legal precedent establishes juvenile offenders as inherently less culpable than adult offenders and thus protects juveniles from the most severe of punishments. But how fragile might these protections be? In the present study, simply bringing to mind a Black (vs. White) juvenile offender led participants to view juveniles in general as significantly more similar to adults in their inherent culpability and to express more support for severe sentencing. Indeed, these differences in participants' perceptions of this foundational legal precedent distinguishing between juveniles and adults accounted for their greater support for severe punishment. These results highlight the fragility of protections for juveniles when race is in play. Furthermore, we suggest that this fragility may have broad implications for how juveniles are seen and treated in the criminal justice system.

  View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0036680

  View details for Web of Science ID 000305335800013

  View details for PubMedID 22649496

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3359323

• "It's ok - Not everyone can be good at math": Instructors with an entity theory comfort (and demotivate) students JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Rattan, A., Good, C., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 48 (3): 731-737

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.012

  View details for Web of Science ID 000303075000016

• Why Do Women Opt Out? Sense of Belonging and Women's Representation in Mathematics JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Good, C., Rattan, A., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 102 (4): 700-717

  Abstract

  Sense of belonging to math-one's feelings of membership and acceptance in the math domain-was established as a new and an important factor in the representation gap between males and females in math. First, a new scale of sense of belonging to math was created and validated, and was found to predict unique variance in college students' intent to pursue math in the future (Studies 1-2). Second, in a longitudinal study of calculus students (Study 3), students' perceptions of 2 factors in their math environment-the message that math ability is a fixed trait and the stereotype that women have less of this ability than men-worked together to erode women's, but not men's, sense of belonging in math. Their lowered sense of belonging, in turn, mediated women's desire to pursue math in the future and their math grades. Interestingly, the message that math ability could be acquired protected women from negative stereotypes, allowing them to maintain a high sense of belonging in math and the intention to pursue math in the future.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0026659

  View details for Web of Science ID 000301884100003

  View details for PubMedID 22288527

• Emotion blocks the path to learning under stereotype threat SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE Mangels, J. A., Good, C., Whiteman, R. C., Maniscalco, B., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 7 (2): 230-241

  Abstract

  Gender-based stereotypes undermine females' performance on challenging math tests, but how do they influence their ability to learn from the errors they make? Females under stereotype threat or non-threat were presented with accuracy feedback after each problem on a GRE-like math test, followed by an optional interactive tutorial that provided step-wise problem-solving instruction. Event-related potentials tracked the initial detection of the negative feedback following errors [feedback related negativity (FRN), P3a], as well as any subsequent sustained attention/arousal to that information [late positive potential (LPP)]. Learning was defined as success in applying tutorial information to correction of initial test errors on a surprise retest 24-h later. Under non-threat conditions, emotional responses to negative feedback did not curtail exploration of the tutor, and the amount of tutor exploration predicted learning success. In the stereotype threat condition, however, greater initial salience of the failure (FRN) predicted less exploration of the tutor, and sustained attention to the negative feedback (LPP) predicted poor learning from what was explored. Thus, under stereotype threat, emotional responses to negative feedback predicted both disengagement from learning and interference with learning attempts. We discuss the importance of emotion regulation in successful rebound from failure for stigmatized groups in stereotype-salient environments.

  View details for DOI 10.1093/scan/nsq100

  View details for Web of Science ID 000300227500012

  View details for PubMedID 21252312

• Mindsets That Promote Resilience: When Students Believe That Personal Characteristics Can Be Developed EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST Yeager, D. S., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 47 (4): 302-314

  View details for DOI 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805

  View details for Web of Science ID 000310142900003

• An implicit theories of personality intervention reduces adolescent aggression in response to victimization and exclusion Child Development Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 84: 970 - 988
• Expandable selves Handbook of self and identity Walton, G. M., Paunesku, D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Leary, M., Tangney, J. New York: Guilford. 2012
• IMPLICIT THEORIES SHAPE INTERGROUP RELATIONS ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, VOL 45 Carr, P. B., Rattan, A., Dweck, C. S. 2012; 45: 127-165

  View details for DOI 10.1016/B978-0-12-394286-9.00003-2

  View details for Web of Science ID 000306817800003

• Beliefs About Emotional Residue: The Idea That Emotions Leave a Trace in the Physical Environment JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Savani, K., Kumar, S., Naidu, N. V., Dweck, C. S. 2011; 101 (4): 684-701

  Abstract

  Drawing upon the literatures on beliefs about magical contagion and property transmission, we examined people's belief in a novel mechanism of human-to-human contagion, emotional residue. This is the lay belief that people's emotions leave traces in the physical environment, which can later influence others or be sensed by others. Studies 1-4 demonstrated that Indians are more likely than Americans to endorse a lay theory of emotions as substances that move in and out of the body, and to claim that they can sense emotional residue. However, when the belief in emotional residue is measured implicitly, both Indians and American believe to a similar extent that emotional residue influences the moods and behaviors of those who come into contact with it (Studies 5-7). Both Indians and Americans also believe that closer relationships and a larger number of people yield more detectable residue (Study 8). Finally, Study 9 demonstrated that beliefs about emotional residue can influence people's behaviors. Together, these finding suggest that emotional residue is likely to be an intuitive concept, one that people in different cultures acquire even without explicit instruction.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0024102

  View details for Web of Science ID 000295196400003

  View details for PubMedID 21688925

• Promoting the Middle East Peace Process by Changing Beliefs About Group Malleability SCIENCE Halperin, E., Russell, A. G., Trzesniewski, K. H., Gross, J. J., Dweck, C. S. 2011; 333 (6050): 1767-1769

  Abstract

  Four studies showed that beliefs about whether groups have a malleable versus fixed nature affected intergroup attitudes and willingness to compromise for peace. Using a nationwide sample (N = 500) of Israeli Jews, the first study showed that a belief that groups were malleable predicted positive attitudes toward Palestinians, which in turn predicted willingness to compromise. In the remaining three studies, experimentally inducing malleable versus fixed beliefs about groups among Israeli Jews (N = 76), Palestinian citizens of Israel (N = 59), and Palestinians in the West Bank (N = 53)--without mentioning the adversary--led to more positive attitudes toward the outgroup and, in turn, increased willingness to compromise for peace.

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.1202925

  View details for Web of Science ID 000295121500049

  View details for PubMedID 21868627

• Motivating voter turnout by invoking the self PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Bryan, C. J., Walton, G. M., Rogers, T., Dweck, C. S. 2011; 108 (31): 12653-12656

  Abstract

  Three randomized experiments found that subtle linguistic cues have the power to increase voting and related behavior. The phrasing of survey items was varied to frame voting either as the enactment of a personal identity (e.g., "being a voter") or as simply a behavior (e.g., "voting"). As predicted, the personal-identity phrasing significantly increased interest in registering to vote (experiment 1) and, in two statewide elections in the United States, voter turnout as assessed by official state records (experiments 2 and 3). These results provide evidence that people are continually managing their self-concepts, seeking to assume or affirm valued personal identities. The results further demonstrate how this process can be channeled to motivate important socially relevant behavior.

  View details for DOI 10.1073/pnas.1103343108

  View details for Web of Science ID 000293385700029

  View details for PubMedID 21768362

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3150938

• Adolescents' Implicit Theories Predict Desire for Vengeance After Peer Conflicts: Correlational and Experimental Evidence Annual Meeting of the American-Educational-Research-Association Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Tim, K., Nokelainen, P., Dweck, C. S. AMER PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOC. 2011: 1090–1107

  Abstract

  Why do some adolescents respond to interpersonal conflicts vengefully, whereas others seek more positive solutions? Three studies investigated the role of implicit theories of personality in predicting violent or vengeful responses to peer conflicts among adolescents in Grades 9 and 10. They showed that a greater belief that traits are fixed (an entity theory) predicted a stronger desire for revenge after a variety of recalled peer conflicts (Study 1) and after a hypothetical conflict that specifically involved bullying (Study 2). Study 3 experimentally induced a belief in the potential for change (an incremental theory), which resulted in a reduced desire to seek revenge. This effect was mediated by changes in bad-person attributions about the perpetrators, feelings of shame and hatred, and the belief that vengeful ideation is an effective emotion-regulation strategy. Together, the findings illuminate the social-cognitive processes underlying reactions to conflict and suggest potential avenues for reducing violent retaliation in adolescents.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/a0023769

  View details for Web of Science ID 000292481800020

  View details for PubMedID 21604865

• CHILDREN'S RESPONSES TO GROUP-BASED INEQUALITIES: PERPETUATION AND RECTIFICATION SOCIAL COGNITION Olson, K. R., Dweck, C. S., Spelke, E. S., Banaji, M. R. 2011; 29 (3): 270-287

  View details for Web of Science ID 000292005700004

• Anger, Hatred, and the Quest for Peace: Anger Can Be Constructive in the Absence of Hatred JOURNAL OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION Halperin, E., Russell, A. G., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2011; 55 (2): 274-291

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0022002710383670

  View details for Web of Science ID 000289616700005

• Misery Has More Company Than People Think: Underestimating the Prevalence of Others' Negative Emotions PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Jordan, A. H., Monin, B., Dweck, C. S., Lovett, B. J., John, O. P., Gross, J. J. 2011; 37 (1): 120-135

  Abstract

  Four studies document underestimations of the prevalence of others' negative emotions and suggest causes and correlates of these erroneous perceptions. In Study 1a, participants reported that their negative emotions were more private or hidden than were their positive emotions; in Study 1b, participants underestimated the peer prevalence of common negative, but not positive, experiences described in Study 1a. In Study 2, people underestimated negative emotions and overestimated positive emotions even for well-known peers, and this effect was partially mediated by the degree to which those peers reported suppression of negative (vs. positive) emotions. Study 3 showed that lower estimations of the prevalence of negative emotional experiences predicted greater loneliness and rumination and lower life satisfaction and that higher estimations for positive emotional experiences predicted lower life satisfaction. Taken together, these studies suggest that people may think they are more alone in their emotional difficulties than they really are.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167210390822

  View details for PubMedID 21177878

• Buried treasures: Depression, murder, praise, and intelligence Most Underappreciated: 50 Of the Most Eminent Social Psychologists Talk About Hidden Gems Dweck, C. S. edited by Arkin, R. New York: Oxford University Press. 2011
• Motivation and intelligence Handbook of Intelligence Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S. edited by Fieldman, S., Sternberg, R. New York: Cambridge. 2011
• Self-Theories Handbook of theories in social psychology Dweck, C. S. edited by Lange, P. V., Kruglanski, A., Higgins, E. T. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications. 2011
• Academic tenacity White paper prepared for the Gates Foundation Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. 2011
• Ego Depletion-Is It All in Your Head? Implicit Theories About Willpower Affect Self-Regulation PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Job, V., Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M. 2010; 21 (11): 1686-1693

  Abstract

  Much recent research suggests that willpower--the capacity to exert self-control--is a limited resource that is depleted after exertion. We propose that whether depletion takes place or not depends on a person's belief about whether willpower is a limited resource. Study 1 found that individual differences in lay theories about willpower moderate ego-depletion effects: People who viewed the capacity for self-control as not limited did not show diminished self-control after a depleting experience. Study 2 replicated the effect, manipulating lay theories about willpower. Study 3 addressed questions about the mechanism underlying the effect. Study 4, a longitudinal field study, found that theories about willpower predict change in eating behavior, procrastination, and self-regulated goal striving in depleting circumstances. Taken together, the findings suggest that reduced self-control after a depleting task or during demanding periods may reflect people's beliefs about the availability of willpower rather than true resource depletion.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797610384745

  View details for Web of Science ID 000285456800024

  View details for PubMedID 20876879

• Even Geniuses Work Hard EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Dweck, C. S. 2010; 68 (1): 16-20

  View details for Web of Science ID 000281415800007

• Who Confronts Prejudice? The Role of Implicit Theories in the Motivation to Confront Prejudice PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Rattan, A., Dweck, C. S. 2010; 21 (7): 952-959

  Abstract

  Despite the possible costs, confronting prejudice can have important benefits, ranging from the well-being of the target of prejudice to social change. What, then, motivates targets of prejudice to confront people who express explicit bias? In three studies, we tested the hypothesis that targets who hold an incremental theory of personality (i.e., the belief that people can change) are more likely to confront prejudice than targets who hold an entity theory of personality (i.e., the belief that people have fixed traits). In Study 1, targets' beliefs about the malleability of personality predicted whether they spontaneously confronted an individual who expressed bias. In Study 2, targets who held more of an incremental theory reported that they would be more likely to confront prejudice and less likely to withdraw from future interactions with an individual who expressed prejudice. In Study 3, we manipulated implicit theories and replicated these findings. By highlighting the central role that implicit theories of personality play in targets' motivation to confront prejudice, this research has important implications for intergroup relations and social change.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0956797610374740

  View details for Web of Science ID 000285453600011

  View details for PubMedID 20551213

• At the Intersection of Social and Cognitive Development: Internal Working Models of Attachment in Infancy COGNITIVE SCIENCE Johnson, S. C., Dweck, C. S., Chen, F. S., Stern, H. L., Ok, S., Barth, M. 2010; 34 (5): 807-825

  Abstract

  Three visual habituation studies using abstract animations tested the claim that infants' attachment behavior in the Strange Situation procedure corresponds to their expectations about caregiver-infant interactions. Three unique patterns of expectations were revealed. Securely attached infants expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to provide comfort. Insecure-resistant infants not only expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers but also expected caregivers to withhold comfort. Insecure-avoidant infants expected infants to avoid seeking comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to withhold comfort. These data support Bowlby's (1958) original claims-that infants form internal working models of attachment that are expressed in infants' own behavior.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01112.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000279610500006

  View details for PubMedID 21564237

• A Culture of Genius: How an Organization's Lay Theory Shapes People's Cognition, Affect, and Behavior PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Murphy, M. C., Dweck, C. S. 2010; 36 (3): 283-296

  Abstract

  Traditionally, researchers have conceptualized implicit theories as individual differences-lay theories that vary between people. This article, however, investigates the consequences of organization-level implicit theories of intelligence. In five studies, the authors examine how an organization's fixed (entity) or malleable (incremental) theory of intelligence affects people's inferences about what is valued, their self- and social judgments, and their behavioral decisions. In Studies 1 and 2, the authors find that people systematically shift their self-presentations when motivated to join an entity or incremental organization. People present their "smarts" to the entity environment and their "motivation" to the incremental environment. In Studies 3a and 4, they show downstream consequences of these inferences for participants' self-concepts and their hiring decisions. In Study 3b, they demonstrate that the effects are not due to simple priming. The implications for understanding how environments shape cognition and behavior and, more generally, for implicit theories research are discussed.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167209347380

  View details for Web of Science ID 000274848000001

  View details for PubMedID 19826076

• Self-theories: The roots of defensiveness The social psychological foundations of clinical psychology Dweck, C. S., Elliott-Moskwa, E. edited by Maddux, J. E., Tagney, J. P. New York: Guilford Press. 2010
• Why we don't need built-in misbeliefs BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES Dweck, C. S. 2009; 32 (6): 518-?

  View details for DOI 10.1017/S0140525X09991427

  View details for Web of Science ID 000274676100011

• Political mindset: Effects of schema priming on liberal-conservative political positions JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Bryan, C. J., Dweck, C. S., Ross, L., Kay, A. C., Mislavsky, N. O. 2009; 45 (4): 890-895

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.007

  View details for Web of Science ID 000269278800033

• Social Cognitive Development: A New Look CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES Olson, K. R., Dweck, C. S. 2009; 3 (1): 60-65

  View details for Web of Science ID 000270262700011

• Solving Social Problems Like a Psychologist PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2009; 4 (1): 101-102

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01098.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000262830700025

• Solving Social Problems Like a Psychologist. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Walton, G. M., Dweck, C. S. 2009; 4 (1): 101-2

  Abstract

  We suggest that psychologists can play a larger role in the solution of important social problems. Psychology brings two important qualities to the study of social problems: attention to psychological process and rigorous methodology. Our key task is to define social problems in part as psychological problems, and to conduct rigorous research that tests novel psychological solutions. Examples of research that has taken this path-research on race differences in academic performance, on the training of executive function and intelligence, and on the provision of socially constructive default decisions-are provided. We argue that addressing social problems can enrich our science by connecting psychologists to interdisciplinary teams and by providing contexts in which to demonstrate, in striking ways, the value of a psychological approach.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01098.x

  View details for PubMedID 26158842

• Foreword The Development of Giftedness and Talent Across the Life-Span Dweck, C. S. edited by Horowitz, F. D., Subotnik, R. F., Matthews, D. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2009
• On learning to become a member of one’s culture Why We Cooperate Dweck, C. S. edited by Tomasello, M., Dweck, C. S., Silk, J., Skryms, B., Spelke, E. S. Boston, MA.: Boston Review. 2009
• Augmenting cognition: Psychological studies of children Frontiers in Neuroscience Dweck, C. S. 2009
• Lay theories of personality: Cornerstones of meaning in social cognition Social Psychology Compass Plaks, J. E., Levy, S. R., Dweck, C. S. 2009; 3: 1069 - 1081
• Prejudice: How It Develops and How It Can Be Undone HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Dweck, C. S. 2009; 52 (6): 371-376

  View details for DOI 10.1159/000242351

  View details for Web of Science ID 000271818600004

• Can Personality Be Changed? The Role of Beliefs in Personality and Change CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Dweck, C. S. 2008; 17 (6): 391-394

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00612.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000261627700007

• The hidden-zero effect - Representing a single choice as an extended sequence reduces impulsive choice PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2008; 19 (7): 648-649

  View details for Web of Science ID 000257785000006

  View details for PubMedID 18727778

• Defensiveness versus remediation: Self-theories and modes of self-esteem maintenance PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Nussbaum, A. D., Dweck, C. S. 2008; 34 (5): 599-612

  Abstract

  How people maintain and repair their self-esteem has been a topic of widespread interest. In this article, the authors ask, What determines whether people will use direct, remedial actions, or defensive actions? In three studies, they tested the hypothesis that a belief in fixed intelligence (entity theory) would produce defensiveness, whereas a belief in improvable intelligence (incremental theory) would foster remediation. In each study, participants assigned to the entity condition opted for defensive self-esteem repair (downward comparison in Studies 1 and 3; a tutorial on already mastered material in Study 2), but those in the incremental condition opted for self-improvement (upward comparison in Studies 1 and 3; a tutorial on unmastered material in Study 2). Experiment 3 also linked these strategies to self-esteem repair; remedial strategies were the most effective in recovering lost self-esteem for those in the incremental condition, whereas defensive strategies were most effective for those in the entity condition.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167207312960

  View details for Web of Science ID 000255167900002

  View details for PubMedID 18276895

• A Blueprint for Social Cognitive Development. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science Olson, K. R., Dweck, C. S. 2008; 3 (3): 193-202

  Abstract

  The field of social cognitive development (SCD) has historically failed to emerge as a dominant approach in developmental psychology. We take this opportunity to articulate the assumptions, goals, and contributions of SCD with the aim of invigorating research from this perspective. We begin by describing the current landscape of social and cognitive development, suggesting what they have and have not given us. We then outline major goals of the social cognitive developmental approach and walk through examples of successful SCD research. Finally, we examine the unique potential of the social cognitive approach to cross-fertilize social and cognitive development (as well as related fields such as social psychology and neuroscience) and to answer new questions about development.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00074.x

  View details for PubMedID 26158935

• A Blueprint for Social Cognitive Development PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Olson, K. R., Dweck, C. S. 2008; 3 (3): 193-202

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00074.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000261999900003

• Judgments of the lucky across development and culture JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Olson, K. R., Dweck, C. S., Dunham, Y., Spelke, E. S., Banaji, M. R. 2008; 94 (5): 757-776

  Abstract

  For millennia, human beings have believed that it is morally wrong to judge others by the fortuitous or unfortunate events that befall them or by the actions of another person. Rather, an individual's own intended, deliberate actions should be the basis of his or her evaluation, reward, and punishment. In a series of studies, the authors investigated whether such rules guide the judgments of children. The first 3 studies demonstrated that children view lucky others as more likely than unlucky others to perform intentional good actions. Children similarly assess the siblings of lucky others as more likely to perform intentional good actions than the siblings of unlucky others. The next 3 studies demonstrated that children as young as 3 years believe that lucky people are nicer than unlucky people. The final 2 studies found that Japanese children also demonstrate a robust preference for the lucky and their associates. These findings are discussed in relation to M. J. Lerner's (1980) just-world theory and J. Piaget's (1932/1965) immanent-justice research and in relation to the development of intergroup attitudes.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.757

  View details for Web of Science ID 000255293700002

  View details for PubMedID 18444737

• Self-theories: The construction of free will Are we free? Psychology and free will Dweck, C. S., Molden, D. C. edited by Baer, J., Kaufman, J. C., Baumeister, R. F. New York: Oxford University Press. 2008
• Self-theories motivate self-regulated learning Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, Research, and Applications Dweck, C. S., Master, A. edited by Shunk, D., Zimmerman, B. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2008
• Self-theories, goals, and meaning The handbook of motivational science Dweck, C. S., Grant, H. edited by Shah, J., Gardner, W. New York: Guilford. 2008
• The hidden zero effect: Representing standalone choices as extended sequences reduces impulsive choice Psychological Science Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J. 2008; 19: 648 - 649
• The perils and promises of Praise EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Dweck, C. S. 2007; 65 (2): 34-39

  View details for Web of Science ID 000249944600006

• Evidence for infants' internal working models of attachment PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Johnson, S. C., Dweck, C. S., Chen, F. S. 2007; 18 (6): 501-502

  View details for Web of Science ID 000247263800007

  View details for PubMedID 17576262

• Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Cimpian, A., Arce, H. C., Markman, E. M., Dweck, C. S. 2007; 18 (4): 314-316

  View details for Web of Science ID 000246152000008

  View details for PubMedID 17470255

• Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention CHILD DEVELOPMENT Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Dweck, C. S. 2007; 78 (1): 246-263

  Abstract

  Two studies explored the role of implicit theories of intelligence in adolescents' mathematics achievement. In Study 1 with 373 7th graders, the belief that intelligence is malleable (incremental theory) predicted an upward trajectory in grades over the two years of junior high school, while a belief that intelligence is fixed (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory. A mediational model including learning goals, positive beliefs about effort, and causal attributions and strategies was tested. In Study 2, an intervention teaching an incremental theory to 7th graders (N=48) promoted positive change in classroom motivation, compared with a control group (N=43). Simultaneously, students in the control group displayed a continuing downward trajectory in grades, while this decline was reversed for students in the experimental group.

  View details for Web of Science ID 000244517400014

  View details for PubMedID 17328703

• Self-theories: The mindset of a champion Sport and exercise psychology: International perspectives Dweck, C. S. edited by Morris, T., Terry, P., Gordon, S. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. 2007
• Social identity, stereotype threat, and self-theories Contesting stereotypes and constructing identities Good, C., Dweck, C. S., Aronson, J. edited by Fuligni, A. New York: Russell Sage. 2007
• The secret to raising smart kids Scientific American: Mind Dweck, C. S. 2007: 36 - 43
• Voicing conflict: Preferred conflict strategies among incremental and entity theorists PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Kammrath, L. K., Dweck, C. 2006; 32 (11): 1497-1508

  Abstract

  The way individuals choose to handle their feelings during interpersonal conflicts has important consequences for relationship outcomes. In this article, the authors predict and find evidence that people's implicit theory of personality is an important predictor of conflict behavior following a relationship transgression. Incremental theorists, who believe personality can change and improve, were likely to voice their displeasure with others openly and constructively during conflicts. Entity theorists, who believe personality is fundamentally fixed, were less likely to voice their dissatisfactions directly. These patterns were observed in both a retrospective study of conflict in dating relationships (Study 1) and a prospective study of daily conflict experiences (Study 2). Study 2 revealed that the divergence between incremental and entity theorists was increasingly pronounced as conflicts increased in severity: the higher the stakes the stronger the effect.

  View details for DOI 10.1177/0146167206291476

  View details for Web of Science ID 000241331200007

  View details for PubMedID 17030891

• "Meaningful" social inferences: Effects of implicit theories on inferential processes JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Molden, D. C., Plaks, J. E., Dweck, C. S. 2006; 42 (6): 738-752

  View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.11.005

  View details for Web of Science ID 000241366900004

• Children's biased evaluations of lucky versus unlucky people and their social groups PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Olson, K. R., Banaji, M. R., Dweck, C. S., Spelke, E. S. 2006; 17 (10): 845-846

  View details for Web of Science ID 000242289600005

  View details for PubMedID 17100783

• Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE Mangels, J. A., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C., Dweck, C. S. 2006; 1 (2): 75-86

  Abstract

  Students' beliefs and goals can powerfully influence their learning success. Those who believe intelligence is a fixed entity (entity theorists) tend to emphasize 'performance goals,' leaving them vulnerable to negative feedback and likely to disengage from challenging learning opportunities. In contrast, students who believe intelligence is malleable (incremental theorists) tend to emphasize 'learning goals' and rebound better from occasional failures. Guided by cognitive neuroscience models of top-down, goal-directed behavior, we use event-related potentials (ERPs) to understand how these beliefs influence attention to information associated with successful error correction. Focusing on waveforms associated with conflict detection and error correction in a test of general knowledge, we found evidence indicating that entity theorists oriented differently toward negative performance feedback, as indicated by an enhanced anterior frontal P3 that was also positively correlated with concerns about proving ability relative to others. Yet, following negative feedback, entity theorists demonstrated less sustained memory-related activity (left temporal negativity) to corrective information, suggesting reduced effortful conceptual encoding of this material-a strategic approach that may have contributed to their reduced error correction on a subsequent surprise retest. These results suggest that beliefs can influence learning success through top-down biasing of attention and conceptual processing toward goal-congruent information.

  View details for DOI 10.1093/scan/nsl013

  View details for Web of Science ID 000208129700002

  View details for PubMedID 17392928

• Finding "meaning" in psychology - A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST Molden, D. C., Dweck, C. S. 2006; 61 (3): 192-203

  Abstract

  Much of psychology focuses on universal principles of thought and action. Although an extremely productive pursuit, this approach, by describing only the "average person," risks describing no one in particular. This article discusses an alternate approach that complements interests in universal principles with analyses of the unique psychological meaning that individuals find in their experiences and interactions. Rooted in research on social cognition, this approach examines how people's lay theories about the stability or malleability of human attributes alter the meaning they give to basic psychological processes such as self-regulation and social perception. Following a review of research on this lay theories perspective in the field of social psychology, the implications of analyzing psychological meaning for other fields such as developmental, cultural, and personality psychology are discussed.

  View details for Web of Science ID 000236824300001

  View details for PubMedID 16594836

• How stereotypes influence the meaning students give to academic settings Navigating the future: Social identity, coping, and life tasks Lawrence, J. S., Crocker, J., Dweck, C. S. edited by Downey, G., Eccles, J., Chatman, C. New York: Russell Sage. 2006
• Self-theories and conflict resolution Handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice Dweck, C. S., Ehrlinger, J., Deutsch, M., Coleman, P. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 2006
• Is math a gift? Beliefs that put females at risk Why aren’t more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence Dweck, C. S. edited by Ceci, S. J., William, W. M. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2006
• Mindset Dweck, C. S. New York: Random House. 2006
• A motivational approach to reasoning, resilience, and responsibility The other 3 R’s: Reasoning, resilience, and responsibility Good, C., Dweck, C. S. edited by Subotonik, R., Sternberg, R. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. 2006
• Violations of implicit theories and the sense of prediction and control: Implications for motivated person perception 4th Annual Meeting of the Society-for-Personality-and-Social-Psychology Plaks, J. E., Grant, H., DWECK, C. S. AMER PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOC. 2005: 245–62

  Abstract

  Beginning with the assumption that implicit theories of personality are crucial tools for understanding social behavior, the authors tested the hypothesis that perceivers would process person information that violated their predominant theory in a biased manner. Using an attentional probe paradigm (Experiment 1) and a recognition memory paradigm (Experiment 2), the authors presented entity theorists (who believe that human attributes are fixed) and incremental theorists (who believe that human attributes are malleable) with stereotype-relevant information about a target person that supported or violated their respective theory. Both groups of participants showed evidence of motivated, selective processing only with respect to theory-violating information. In Experiment 3, the authors found that after exposure to theory-violating information, participants felt greater anxiety and worked harder to reestablish their sense of prediction and control mastery. The authors discuss the epistemic functions of implicit theories of personality and the impact of violated assumptions.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.245

  View details for Web of Science ID 000226585400002

  View details for PubMedID 15841857

• The handbook of competence and motivation edited by Elliot, A., Dweck, C. S. New York: Guilford. 2005
• Self-Theories: Their impact on competence motivation and acquisition The handbook of competence and motivation Dweck, C. S., Molden, D. C. 2005
• The role of mental representation in social development MERRILL-PALMER QUARTERLY-JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dweck, C. S., London, B. 2004; 50 (4): 428-444

  View details for Web of Science ID 000225587900003

• Motivational effects on attention, cognition, and performance Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrated perspectives on intellectual functioning Dweck, C. S., Mangels, J., Good, C. edited by Dai, D. Y., Sternberg, R. J. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2004
• The role of mental representation in social development Appraising past, present, and prospective research agendas in the human development sciences Dweck, C. S. edited by Ladd, G. Detriot: Wayne State University Press. 2004
• Clarifying achievement goals and their impact JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Grant, H., DWECK, C. S. 2003; 85 (3): 541-553

  Abstract

  The study of achievement goals has illuminated basic motivational processes, though controversy surrounds their nature and impact. In 5 studies, including a longitudinal study in a difficult premed course, the authors show that the impact of learning and performance goals depends on how they are operationalized. Active learning goals predicted active coping, sustained motivation, and higher achievement in the face of challenge. Among performance goals, ability-linked goals predicted withdrawal and poorer performance in the face of challenge (but provided a "boost" to performance when students met with success); normative goals did not predict decrements in motivation or performance; and outcome goals (wanting a good grade) were in fact equally related to learning goals and ability goals. Ways in which the findings address discrepancies in the literature are discussed.

  View details for DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

  View details for Web of Science ID 000185259200013

  View details for PubMedID 14498789

• Ability conceptions, motivation, and development British Journal of Educational Psychology (Special Issue: Motivation and Development) Dweck, C. S. 2003
• The development of ability conceptions The development of achievement motivation Dweck, C. S. edited by Wingfield, A., Eccles, J. New York: Academic Press. 2002
• Self-systems give unique meaning to self-variables Handbook of self and identity Dweck, C. S., Higgins, E. T., Grant, H. edited by Leary, M., Tagney, J. New York: Guilford. 2002
• In the eye of the beholder: Implicit theories and the perception of groups The psychology of group perception Plaks, J., Levy, S., Dweck, C. S., Strossner edited by Yzerbyt, V., Corneille, O., Judd, C. New York: Psychology Press. 2002
• Beliefs that make smart people dumb Why smart people do stupid things Dweck, C. S. edited by Sternberg, R. J. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2002
• Messages that motivate: How praise molds students' beliefs, motivation, and performance (In Surprising Ways) Improving academic achievement Dweck, C. S. edited by Aronson, J. New York: Academic Press. 2002
• Person theories and attention allocation: Preferences for stereotypic versus counterstereotypic information JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Plaks, J. E., Stroessner, S. J., DWECK, C. S., Sherman, J. W. 2001; 80 (6): 876-893

  Abstract

  How do people respond to information that counters a stereotype? Do they approach it or avoid it? Four experiments showed that attention to stereotype-consistent vs. -inconsistent information depends on people's implicit theories about human traits. Those holding an entity theory (the belief that traits are fixed) consistently displayed greater attention to (Experiments 1 and 4) and recognition of (Experiments 2 and 3) consistent information. whereas those holding an incremental (dynamic) theory tended to display greater attention to (Experiment 1) and recognition of (Experiment 3) inconsistent information. This was true whether implicit theories were measured as chronic structures (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) or were experimentally manipulated (Experiment 3). Thus, different a priori assumptions about human traits and behavior lead to processing that supports versus limits stereotype maintenance.

  View details for DOI 10.1037//0022-3514.80.6.876

  View details for Web of Science ID 000170456200004

  View details for PubMedID 11414372

• Person theories and attention allocation: Preference for stereotypic vs. counterstereotypic information Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Plaks, J., Stroessner, S., Dweck, C. S., Sherman, J. 2001; 80: 876 - 893
• Cross-cultural response to failure: Considering outcome attributions within different goals Student motivation: The culture and context of learning Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. edited by Salili, F., Chiu, C., Hong, Y. New York: Plenum. 2001
• Static versus dynamic theories and the perception of groups: Different routes to different destinations PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW Levy, S. R., Plaks, J. E., Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y., DWECK, C. S. 2001; 5 (2): 156-168

  View details for Web of Science ID 000168592200006

• Teorie del se': Intelligenza, motivazione, personalita' e sviluppo Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development Dweck, C. S. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis/Psychology Press. 2000
• Meaning and motivation Intrinsic motivation Molden, D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Sansone, C., Harackiewicz, J. San Diego, CA: Academic Pres. 2000
• Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M., Wan, W. 1999; 77 (3): 588-599

  View details for Web of Science ID 000082743400012

• The impact of children's static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation CHILD DEVELOPMENT Levy, S. R., DWECK, C. S. 1999; 70 (5): 1163-1180

  View details for Web of Science ID 000083197900009

• Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY KAMINS, M. L., Dweck, C. S. 1999; 35 (3): 835-847

  Abstract

  Conventional wisdom suggests that praising a child as a whole or praising his or her traits is beneficial. Two studies tested the hypothesis that both criticism and praise that conveyed person or trait judgments could send a message of contingent worth and undermine subsequent coping. In Study 1, 67 children (ages 5-6 years) role-played tasks involving a setback and received 1 of 3 forms of criticism after each task: person, outcome, or process criticism. In Study 2, 64 children role-played successful tasks and received either person, outcome, or process praise. In both studies, self-assessments, affect, and persistence were measured on a subsequent task involving a setback. Results indicated that children displayed significantly more "helpless" responses (including self-blame) on all dependent measures after person criticism or praise than after process criticism or praise. Thus person feedback, even when positive, can create vulnerability and a sense of contingent self-worth.

  View details for Web of Science ID 000080687800021

  View details for PubMedID 10380873

• Differential use of person information in decisions about guilt versus innocence: The role of implicit theories PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Gervey, B. M., Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y., DWECK, C. S. 1999; 25 (1): 17-27

  View details for Web of Science ID 000077691800002

• Self-Theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development Dweck, C. S. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis/Psychology Press. 1999
• Mastery-oriented thinking Coping Dweck, C. S., Sorich, L. edited by Snyder, R. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999
• Children’s static vs. dynamic person conceptions as predictors of their stereotype formation Child Development Levy, S. R., Dweck, C. S. 1999; 70: 1163 - 1180
• Content vs. structural models of self-regulation Advances in social cognition Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. 1999
• Caution: Praise can be dangerous American Educator Dweck, C. S. 1999; 23 (1): 4 - 9
• Modes of social thought: Implicit theories and social understanding Dual process models in social psychology Levy, S., Plaks, J. E., Dweck, C. S. edited by Chaiken, S., Trope, Y. New York: Guilford Press. 1999
• A goal analysis of personality and personality coherence Social-cognitive approaches to personality coherence Grant, H., Dweck, C. S. edited by Cervone, D., Shoda, Y. New York: Guilford Press. 1999: 345–371
• Stereotype formation and endorsement: The role of implicit theories JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Levy, S. R., Stroessner, S. J., Dweck, C. S. 1998; 74 (6): 1421-1436

  View details for Web of Science ID 000074328700001

• Children's thinking about traits: Implications for judgements of the self and others CHILD DEVELOPMENT Heyman, G. D., DWECK, C. S. 1998; 69 (2): 391-403

  Abstract

  The relation between the way in which children interpret human behavior and their beliefs about the stability of human traits is investigated. In interviews with 202 7- and 8-year-olds across 2 studies, the belief that traits are stable predicted a greater tendency to make trait judgments, and an increased focus on outcomes and behaviors through which traits can be judged. In the academic domain, a belief in trait stability was associated with an emphasis on the evaluative meanings of performance outcomes, as opposed to mediating processes such as effort. In the sociomoral domain, the same belief was associated with an emphasis on the evaluative meanings of behaviors (e.g., whether the person is good or bad), as opposed to factors that mediate behavior, such as intention. Results suggest that beliefs about the stability of traits may serve an important role in thinking about and functioning within the academic and sociomoral domains.

  View details for Web of Science ID 000073343300011

  View details for PubMedID 9586214

• Trait-versus process-focused social judgment SOCIAL COGNITION Levy, S. R., Dweck, C. S. 1998; 16 (1): 151-172

  View details for Web of Science ID 000074161300009

• The development of early self-conceptions: Their relevance for motivational processes Motivation and self-regulation across the life span Dweck, C. S. edited by Hechausen, J., Dweck, C. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998: 257–280
• Motivation and self-regulation across the life span Dweck, C. S. edited by Heckhausen, J., Dweck, C. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998
• Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Mueller, C. M., Dweck, C. S. 1998; 75: 33 - 52
• Implicit theories and conceptions of morality JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Chiu, C. Y., DWECK, C. S., Tong, J. Y., Fu, J. H. 1997; 73 (5): 923-940

  View details for Web of Science ID A1997YD81800003

• Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y., DWECK, C. S. 1997; 73 (1): 19-30

  Abstract

  Lay dispositionism refers to lay people's tendency to use traits as the basic unit of analysis in social perception (L. Ross & R. E. Nisbett, 1991). Five studies explored the relation between the practices indicative of lay dispositionism and people's implicit theories about the nature of personal attributes. As predicted, compared with those who believed that personal attributes are malleable (incremental theorists), those who believed in fixed traits (entity theorists) used traits or trait-relevant information to make stronger future behavioral predictions (Studies 1 and 2) and made stronger trait inferences from behavior (Study 3). Moreover, the relation between implicit theories and lay dispositionism was found in both the United States (a more individualistic culture) and Hong Kong (a more collectivistic culture), suggesting this relation to be generalizable across cultures (Study 4). Finally, an experiment in which implicit theories were manipulated provided preliminary evidence for the possible causal role of implicit theories in lay dispositionism (Study 5).

  View details for Web of Science ID A1997XG51500002

  View details for PubMedID 9216077

• Implicit theories and evaluative processes in person cognition JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y., DWECK, C. S., Sacks, R. 1997; 33 (3): 296-323

  View details for Web of Science ID A1997WX63900005

• Relations among children's social goals, implicit personality theories, and responses to social failure DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Erdley, C. A., Loomis, C. C., Cain, K. M., DumasHines, F., DWECK, C. S. 1997; 33 (2): 263-272

  Abstract

  Two studies examined children's thought patterns in relation to their responses to social challenge. In Study 1, 4th and 5th graders tried out for a pen pal club under either a performance goal (stressing the evaluative nature of the tryout) or a learning goal (emphasizing the potential learning opportunities). In their behavior and attributions following rejection, children who were focused on a performance goal reacted with more helplessness, whereas children given a learning goal displayed a more mastery-oriented response. Study 2 found that in response to hypothetical socially challenging situations, 4th, 5th, and 6th graders who believed personality was nonmalleable (entity theorists) vs. malleable (incremental theorists) were more likely to endorse performance goals. Together, these studies indicate that children's goals in social situations are associated with their responses to social failure and are predicted by their implicit theories about their personality.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1997WM80500007

  View details for PubMedID 9147835

• Capturing the dynamic nature of personality JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY DWECK, C. S. 1996; 30 (3): 348-362

  View details for Web of Science ID A1996VT73000005

• Implicit theories as organizers of goals and behavior The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior Dweck, C. S. edited by Gollwitzer, P., Bargh, J. New York: Guilford. 1996
• Social motivation: Goals and social-cognitive processes Social Motivation Dweck, C. S. edited by Juvonen, J., Wentzel, K. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996
• Helplessness in early childhood: The role of contingent worth CHILD DEVELOPMENT Burhans, K. K., DWECK, C. S. 1995; 66 (6): 1719-1738

  Abstract

  This article presents an expanded view of the bases of helpless reactions to failure. This view stems from recent findings of helplessness in young children. Previous formulations have stressed the attainment of invariant trait conceptions as a necessary condition for helplessness to occur and have suggested that children are relatively invulnerable to helplessness prior to this attainment. We review a series of studies documenting that key aspects of helplessness are present in preschool and early elementary school children (ages 4-7). We then propose a preliminary model in which (a) a general conception of self and (b) the notion of this self as an object of contingent worth are sufficient conditions for helplessness. We integrate this view with Dweck and Leggett's model of helplessness in older individuals, in which more differentiated trait conceptions play an important role.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1995TN06500010

  View details for PubMedID 8556895

• The development of children’s achievement motivation patterns and conceptions of intelligence Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Cain, K., Dweck, C. S. 1995; 41: 25 - 52
• THE RELATION BETWEEN MOTIVATIONAL PATTERNS AND ACHIEVEMENT COGNITIONS THROUGH THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL YEARS MERRILL-PALMER QUARTERLY-JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Cain, K. M., DWECK, C. S. 1995; 41 (1): 25-52

  View details for Web of Science ID A1995QF63100002

• IMPLICIT THEORIES AND THEIR ROLE IN JUDGMENTS AND REACTIONS - A WORLD FROM 2 PERSPECTIVES PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY DWECK, C. S., Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y. 1995; 6 (4): 267-285

  View details for Web of Science ID A1995RX39600001

• The development of self-conceptions and person conceptions Review of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 15: Social Development Ruble, D. N., Dweck, C. S. edited by Eisenberg, N. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1995
• Implicit theories of intelligence: Reconsidering the role of confidence in achievement motivation Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, Y. Y., Dweck, C. S., edited by Kemis, M. New York: Plenum. 1995
• IMPLICIT THEORIES - ELABORATION AND EXTENSION OF THE MODEL PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY DWECK, C. S., Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y. 1995; 6 (4): 322-333

  View details for Web of Science ID A1995RX39600012

• INDIVIDUAL-DIFFERENCES IN ACHIEVEMENT GOALS AMONG YOUNG-CHILDREN CHILD DEVELOPMENT SMILEY, P. A., DWECK, C. S. 1994; 65 (6): 1723-1743

  Abstract

  Developmental research has generally not found evidence of helpless responses to failure in young children; a prevailing view is that young children lack the cognitive prerequisite for helplessness. However, recent evidence suggests that even preschoolers are vulnerable to helplessness in some situations. In the present study with 4- and 5-year-olds, we tested a goal-confidence model that predicts achievement behavior during failure for older children. We first categorized preschoolers' orientations toward "learning" or "performance" goals based on their preference for a challenging or nonchallenging task. As for older children, goal orientation was independent of ability and predicted cognitions and emotions during failure. Further, consistent with the model, within a learning goal, children displayed the mastery-oriented pattern regardless of confidence level, whereas within a performance goal, children with low confidence were most susceptible to helplessness. These behavior patterns were found on a second task as well. Thus, our findings show that individual differences in achievement goals emerge very early.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1994QA68600014

  View details for PubMedID 7859551

• The development of achievement motivation International encyclopedia of education Heyman, G. D., Dweck, C. S. edited by Weinert, F. London: Pergamon Press. 1994
• Toward an integrative model of personality and intelligence: A general framework and some preliminary steps Personality and intelligence Chiu, C. Y., Hong, Y. Y., Dweck, C. S. edited by Stenberg, R., Ruzgis, G. New York: Cambridge. 1994
• IMPLICIT THEORIES - INDIVIDUAL-DIFFERENCES IN THE LIKELIHOOD AND MEANING OF DISPOSITIONAL INFERENCE PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN DWECK, C. S., Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y. 1993; 19 (5): 644-656

  View details for Web of Science ID A1993LY98900014

• CHILDRENS IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES AS PREDICTORS OF THEIR SOCIAL JUDGMENTS CHILD DEVELOPMENT Erdley, C. A., DWECK, C. S. 1993; 64 (3): 863-878

  Abstract

  Social judgment and trait ascription have long been central issues in psychology. Two studies tested the hypothesis that children who believe that personality is a fixed quality (entity theorists) would make more rigid and long-term social judgments than those who believe that personality is malleable (incremental theorists). Fourth and fifth graders (mean age 10.2 years) viewed a slide show of a boy displaying negative behaviors (Study 1--being shy, clumsy, and nervous; Study 2--lying, cheating, and stealing) and then made a series of ratings. Half of the subjects saw a consistent (negative) ending, and half saw an inconsistent (more positive) ending. Even when they viewed positive counterevidence, entity theorists did not differ in their ratings of the focal traits, but incremental theorists did. Entity theorists in Study 2 also predicted significantly less change in the short term and the long term than did incremental theorists. Study 2 further revealed that, when the behaviors were more negative, entity theorists made more generalized and global negative trait evaluations of the target, showed less empathy, and recommended more punishment. Differences in the social judgment processes of entity and incremental theorists are discussed, and implications for issues (such as stereotyping) are explored.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1993LJ94100016

  View details for PubMedID 8339700

• ACHIEVEMENT GOALS AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION - THEIR RELATION AND THEIR ROLE IN ADAPTIVE MOTIVATION MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Heyman, G. D., DWECK, C. S. 1992; 16 (3): 231-247

  View details for Web of Science ID A1992KF99500005

• THE STUDY OF GOALS IN PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE DWECK, C. S. 1992; 3 (3): 165-167

  View details for Web of Science ID A1992HX39400004

• YOUNG CHILDRENS VULNERABILITY TO SELF-BLAME AND HELPLESSNESS - RELATIONSHIP TO BELIEFS ABOUT GOODNESS CHILD DEVELOPMENT Heyman, G. D., DWECK, C. S., Cain, K. M. 1992; 63 (2): 401-415

  Abstract

  Motivational helplessness, linked to conceptions of intelligence, has been well documented in older children. While some researchers have reported that children just starting school are motivationally invulnerable, others have found evidence of helplessness when these children encounter failure. The present study seeks to determine whether the reactions associated with helplessness can be identified in a new context, that of criticism, and whether any such responses are related to the child's conceptions of goodness. Subjects were 107 5- and 6-year-old children who enacted achievement situations in which teacher criticism was presented. The 39% of children whose own assessments were undermined by criticism exhibited the affect, task choices, and nonconstructive problem-solving strategies characteristic of helplessness. They were also more likely to make global negative self-judgments following criticism, including negative judgments of their goodness. Finally, these children were more likely to endorse stable and global beliefs about goodness.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1992HP15600013

  View details for PubMedID 1611943

• SELF-THEORIES AND GOALS - THEIR ROLE IN MOTIVATION, PERSONALITY, AND DEVELOPMENT NEBRASKA SYMPOSIUM ON MOTIVATION DWECK, C. S. 1991; 38: 199-235

  View details for Web of Science ID A1991HT08000004

• Motivation Foundations for a cognitive psychology of education Dweck, C. S. edited by Glaser, R., Lesgold, A. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1990
• Achievement and motivation in adolescence: A new model and data At the threshold: The developing adolescent Henderson, V., Dweck, C. S. edited by Fieldman, S., Elliot, G. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1990
• Children’s theories of intelligence: A developmental model Advances in the study of intelligence Cain, K., Dweck, C. S. edited by Sternberg, R. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1989
• The functions of a personality theory Advances in social cognition Bergen, R., Dweck, C. S. edited by Wyre, R., Srull, T. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1989
• A SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH TO MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW DWECK, C. S., LEGGETT, E. L. 1988; 95 (2): 256-273

  View details for Web of Science ID A1988N009600004

• GOALS - AN APPROACH TO MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Elliott, E. S., DWECK, C. S. 1988; 54 (1): 5-12

  Abstract

  This study tested a framework in which goals are proposed to be central determinants of achievement patterns. Learning goals, in which individuals seek to increase their competence, were predicted to promote challenge-seeking and a mastery-oriented response to failure regardless of perceived ability. Performance goals, in which individuals seek to gain favorable judgments of their competence or avoid negative judgments, were predicted to produce challenge-avoidance and learned helplessness when perceived ability was low and to promote certain forms of risk-avoidance even when perceived ability was high. Manipulations of relative goal value (learning vs. performance) and perceived ability (high vs. low) resulted in the predicted differences on measures of task choice, performance during difficulty, and spontaneous verbalizations during difficulty. Particularly striking was the way in which the performance goal-low perceived ability condition produced the same pattern of strategy deterioration, failure attribution, and negative affect found in naturally occurring learned helplessness. Implications for theories of motivation and achievement are discussed.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1988L778300001

  View details for PubMedID 3346808

• MOTIVATIONAL PROCESSES AFFECTING LEARNING AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST DWECK, C. S. 1986; 41 (10): 1040-1048

  View details for Web of Science ID A1986E614300003

• THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRAIT EXPLANATIONS AND SELF-EVALUATIONS IN THE ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL DOMAINS CHILD DEVELOPMENT Benenson, J. F., DWECK, C. S. 1986; 57 (5): 1179-1187

  Abstract

  The present study was designed to investigate the development of children's trait explanations and self-evaluations in the 2 domains. 144 white, middle-class children in kindergarten, first, second, and fourth grades (mean ages 5-8, 7-0, 7-9, and 10-0 years, respectively) were interviewed individually about their explanations for both academic and social outcomes and their evaluations of their own outcomes. Trait explanations emerged earlier in the social domain. In addition, trait explanations emerged earlier for success than for failure. Self-evaluations became less positive in both domains and less similar across domains with increasing grade level. An experiential theory of the development of understanding of a domain is presented.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1986E196100009

  View details for PubMedID 3769605

• Intrinsic motivation, perceived control, and self-evaluation maintenance: An achievement goal analysis Research on motivation in education Dweck, C. S. edited by Ames, R., Ames, C. New York: Academic Press. 1985
• Sex differences in achievement orientations: Consequences for academic choices and attainments Sex differentiation and schooling Licht, B. G., Dweck, C. S. edited by Marland, M. London: Heinemann. 1984
• DETERMINANTS OF ACADEMIC-ACHIEVEMENT - THE INTERACTION OF CHILDRENS ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATIONS WITH SKILL AREA DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Licht, B. G., DWECK, C. S. 1984; 20 (4): 628-636

  View details for Web of Science ID A1984TA61500012

• Achievement motivation Handbook of child psychology Dweck, C. S., Elliot, E. S. edited by Mussen, P., Hetherington, E. M. New York: Wiley. 1983
• Children’s theories of intelligence: Implications for learning Learning and motivation in children Dweck, C. S., Bempechat, J. edited by Paris, S., Olson, G., Stevenson, H. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1983
• Learned helplessness, anxiety, and achievement motivation: Neglected parallels in cognitive, affective, and coping responses Achievement, stress, and anxiety Dweck, C. S., Wortman, C. edited by Krohne, H. W., Laux, L. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. 1982
• Social-cognitive processes in children’s friendships The development of children’s friendships Dweck, C. S. edited by Asher, S. R., Gottman, J. M. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1981
• AN ANALYSIS OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS .2. THE PROCESSING OF SUCCESS JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Diener, C. I., DWECK, C. S. 1980; 39 (5): 940-952

  Abstract

  Helpless children attribute their failures to lack of ability and view them as insurmountable. Mastery-oriented children, in contrast, tend to emphasize motivational factors and to view failure as surmountable. Although the performance of the two groups is usually identical during success of prior to failure, past research suggests that these groups may well differ in the degree to which they perceive that their successes are replicable and hence that their failures are avoidable. The present study was concerned with the nature of such differences. Children performed a task on which they encountered success and then failure. Half were asked a series of questions about their performance after success and half after failure. Striking differences emerged: Compared to mastery-oriented children, helpless children underestimated the number of success (and overestimated the number of failures), did not view successes as indicative of ability, and did not expect the successes to continue. subsequent failure led them to devalue ;their performance but left the mastery-oriented children undaunted. Thus, for helpless children, successes are less salient, less predictive, and less enduring--less successful.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1980KS20700017

  View details for PubMedID 7441483

• SEX-DIFFERENCES IN LEARNED HELPLESSNESS .4. AN EXPERIMENTAL AND NATURALISTIC STUDY OF FAILURE GENERALIZATION AND ITS MEDIATORS JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S., Goetz, T. E., STRAUSS, N. L. 1980; 38 (3): 441-452

  View details for Web of Science ID A1980JN14000011

• LEARNED HELPLESSNESS IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Goetz, T. E., DWECK, C. S. 1980; 39 (2): 246-255

  Abstract

  Helplessness in social situations was conceptualized as the perceived inability to surmount rejection, as revealed by causal attributions for rejection. Although current research on children's social adjustment emphasizes differences in social skills between popular and unpopular children or behavioral intervention as an aid for withdrawn children, the present study explores responses to rejection across popularity levels. The results show that individual differences in attributions for rejection are related to disruption of goal-directed behavior following rejection. As predicted, the most severe disruption of attempts to gain social approval (withdrawal and perseveration) was associated with the tendency to emphasize personal incompetence as the cause of rejection, regardless of popularity level. The findings suggest that cognitive mediators of overt social behavior and ability to solve problems when faced with difficulties need to be considered in the study of children's social relations.

  View details for Web of Science ID A1980KE45800006

  View details for PubMedID 7411393

• Learned helplessness and intellectual achievement Human helplessness: Theory and application Dweck, C. S., Licht, B. G. edited by Seligman, M. E., Garber, J. New York: Academic Press. 1980
• SEX-DIFFERENCES IN LEARNED HELPLESSNESS .2. CONTINGENCIES OF EVALUATIVE FEEDBACK IN CLASSROOM .3. EXPERIMENTAL-ANALYSIS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S., Davidson, W., Nelson, S., Enna, B. 1978; 14 (3): 268-276

  View details for Web of Science ID A1978FA62800009

• Attributions and learned helplessness New directions in attribution research Dweck, C. S. edited by Harvey, J., Ickes, W., Kidd, R. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 1978
• ANALYSIS OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS - CONTINUOUS CHANGES IN PERFORMANCE, STRATEGY, AND ACHIEVEMENT COGNITIONS FOLLOWING FAILURE JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Diener, C. I., DWECK, C. S. 1978; 36 (5): 451-462

  View details for Web of Science ID A1978FA11100001

• ATTRACTION AND DELAY OF GRATIFICATION JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY Herzberger, S. D., DWECK, C. S. 1978; 46 (2): 215-227

  View details for Web of Science ID A1978FG91200002

• Achievement Socio-personality development Dweck, C. S., Lamb, M. E. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. 1978
• MOTIVATION AND COMPETENCE AS DETERMINANTS OF YOUNG CHILDRENS REWARD ALLOCATION DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Nelson, S. A., DWECK, C. S. 1977; 13 (3): 192-197

  View details for Web of Science ID A1977DH43300003

• Learned helplessness and childhood depression: A developmental approach Depression in childhood: Diagnosis, treatment and conceptual models Dweck, C. S. edited by Schulterbrandt, J. G., Raskin, A. New York: Raven Press. 1977
• Children’s interpretation of evaluative feedback: The effect of social cues on learned helplessness Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Dweck, C. S. edited by Dweck, C. S., Hill, K. T., Redd, W. H., Steinman, W. M., Parke, R. D. 1976: 83–92
• SEX-DIFFERENCES IN LEARNED HELPLESSNESS .1. DIFFERENTIAL DEBILITATION WITH PEER AND ADULT EVALUATORS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S., Bush, E. S. 1976; 12 (2): 147-156

  View details for Web of Science ID A1976BJ03000009

• The impact of social cues on children's behavior Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Dweck, C. S. 1976: 83–92
• ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS AND ATTRIBUTIONS IN ALLEVIATION OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S. 1975; 31 (4): 674-685

  View details for Web of Science ID A1975W168100009

• REFLECTIONS ON CONCEPTUAL TEMPO - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COGNITIVE STYLE AND PERFORMANCE AS A FUNCTION OF TASK CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Bush, E. S., DWECK, C. S. 1975; 11 (5): 567-574

  View details for Web of Science ID A1975AQ71300006

• EXPECTANCY STATEMENTS AS DETERMINANTS OF REACTIONS TO FAILURE - SEX-DIFFERENCES IN PERSISTENCE AND EXPECTANCY CHANGE JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S., Gilliard, D. 1975; 32 (6): 1077-1084

  View details for Web of Science ID A1975AZ92700017

• LEARNED HELPLESSNESS AND REINFORCEMENT RESPONSIBILITY IN CHILDREN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DWECK, C. S., Reppucci, N. D. 1973; 25 (1): 109-116

  View details for Web of Science ID A1973O635300014

• Personal politics Langer, E. J., Dweck, C. S. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1973
• Situational cues and the correlation between CS and US as determinants of the conditioned emotional response Psychonomic Science Dweck, C. S., Wegner, A. R. 1970; 18: 145 - 147