Jeffrey B. Tok

All Publications

• High-density soft bioelectronic fibres for multimodal sensing and stimulation. Nature Khatib, M., Zhao, E. T., Wei, S., Park, J., Abramson, A., Bishop, E. S., Thomas, A. L., Chen, C. H., Emengo, P., Xu, C., Hamnett, R., Root, S. E., Yuan, L., Wurdack, M. J., Zaluska, T., Lee, Y., Parkatzidis, K., Yu, W., Chakhtoura, D., Kim, K. K., Zhong, D., Nishio, Y., Zhao, C., Wu, C., Jiang, Y., Zhang, A., Li, J., Wang, W., Salimi-Jazi, F., Rafeeqi, T. A., Hemed, N. M., Tok, J. B., Qian, X., Chen, X., Kaltschmidt, J. A., Dunn, J. C., Bao, Z. 2025; 645 (8081): 656-664

  Abstract

  There is an increasing demand for multimodal sensing and stimulation bioelectronic fibres for both research and clinical applications1,2. However, existing fibres suffer from high rigidity, low component layout precision, limited functionality and low density of active components. These limitations arise from the challenge of integrating many components into one-dimensional fibre devices, especially owing to the incompatibility of conventional microfabrication methods (for example, photolithography) with curved, thin and long fibre structures2. As a result, limited applications have been demonstrated so far. Here we use 'spiral transformation' to convert two-dimensional thin films containing microfabricated devices into one-dimensional soft fibres. This approach allows for the fabrication of high-density multimodal soft bioelectronic fibres, termed Spiral-NeuroString (S-NeuroString), while enabling precise control on the longitudinal, angular and radial positioning and distribution of the functional components. Taking advantage of the biocompatibility of our soft fibres with the dynamic and soft gastrointestinal system, we proceed to show the feasibility of our S-NeuroString for post-operative multimodal continuous motility mapping and tissue stimulation in awake pigs. We further demonstrate multi-channel single-unit electrical recording in mouse brain for up to 4 months, and a fabrication capability to produce 1,280 channels within a 230-μm-diameter soft fibre. Our soft bioelectronic fibres offer a powerful platform for minimally invasive implantable electronics, where diverse sensing and stimulation functionalities can be effectively integrated.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-025-09481-2

  View details for PubMedID 40962977

  View details for PubMedCentralID 6397644

• High-speed and large-scale intrinsically stretchable integrated circuits. Nature Zhong, D., Wu, C., Jiang, Y., Yuan, Y., Kim, M., Nishio, Y., Shih, C., Wang, W., Lai, J., Ji, X., Gao, T. Z., Wang, Y., Xu, C., Zheng, Y., Yu, Z., Gong, H., Matsuhisa, N., Zhao, C., Lei, Y., Liu, D., Zhang, S., Ochiai, Y., Liu, S., Wei, S., Tok, J. B., Bao, Z. 2024; 627 (8003): 313-320

  Abstract

  Intrinsically stretchable electronics with skin-like mechanical properties have been identified as a promising platform for emerging applications ranging from continuous physiological monitoring to real-time analysis of health conditions, to closed-loop delivery of autonomous medical treatment1-7. However, current technologies could only reach electrical performance at amorphous-silicon level (that is, charge-carrier mobility of about 1cm2V-1s-1), low integration scale (for example, 54 transistors per circuit) and limited functionalities8-11. Here we report high-density, intrinsically stretchable transistors and integrated circuits with high driving ability, high operation speed and large-scale integration. They were enabled by a combination of innovations in materials, fabrication process design, device engineering and circuit design. Our intrinsically stretchable transistors exhibit an average field-effect mobility of more than 20cm2V-1s-1 under 100% strain, a device density of 100,000 transistors per cm2, including interconnects and a high drive current of around 2muAmum-1 at a supply voltage of 5V. Notably, these achieved parameters are on par with state-of-the-art flexible transistors based on metal-oxide, carbon nanotube and polycrystalline silicon materials on plastic substrates12-14. Furthermore, we realize a large-scale integrated circuit with more than 1,000 transistors and a stage-switching frequency greater than 1MHz, for the first time, to our knowledge, in intrinsically stretchable electronics. Moreover, we demonstrate a high-throughput braille recognition system that surpasses human skin sensing ability, enabled by an active-matrix tactile sensor array with a record-high density of 2,500 units per cm2, and a light-emitting diode display with a high refreshing speed of 60Hz and excellent mechanical robustness. The above advancements in device performance have substantially enhanced the abilities of skin-like electronics.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-024-07096-7

  View details for PubMedID 38480964

• Soft and stretchable organic bioelectronics for continuous intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring during microsurgery. Nature biomedical engineering Zhou, W., Jiang, Y., Xu, Q., Chen, L., Qiao, H., Wang, Y. X., Lai, J. C., Zhong, D., Zhang, Y., Li, W., Du, Y., Wang, X., Lei, J., Dong, G., Guan, X., Ma, S., Kang, P., Yuan, L., Zhang, M., Tok, J. B., Li, D., Bao, Z., Jia, W. 2023

  Abstract

  In microneurosurgery, it is crucial to maintain the structural and functional integrity of the nerve through continuous intraoperative identification of neural anatomy. To this end, here we report the development of a translatable system leveraging soft and stretchable organic-electronic materials for continuous intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring. The system uses conducting polymer electrodes with low impedance and low modulus to record near-field action potentials continuously during microsurgeries, offers higher signal-to-noise ratios and reduced invasiveness when compared with handheld clinical probes for intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring and can be multiplexed, allowing for the precise localization of the target nerve in the absence of anatomical landmarks. Compared with commercial metal electrodes, the neurophysiological monitoring system allowed for enhanced post-operative prognoses after tumour-resection surgeries in rats. Continuous recording of near-field action potentials during microsurgeries may allow for the precise identification of neural anatomy through the entire procedure.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41551-023-01069-3

  View details for PubMedID 37537304

  View details for PubMedCentralID 4058457

• A tissue-like neurotransmitter sensor for the brain and gut. Nature Li, J., Liu, Y., Yuan, L., Zhang, B., Bishop, E. S., Wang, K., Tang, J., Zheng, Y., Xu, W., Niu, S., Beker, L., Li, T. L., Chen, G., Diyaolu, M., Thomas, A., Mottini, V., Tok, J. B., Dunn, J. C., Cui, B., Pașca, S. P., Cui, Y., Habtezion, A., Chen, X., Bao, Z. 2022; 606 (7912): 94-101

  Abstract

  Neurotransmitters play essential roles in regulating neural circuit dynamics both in the central nervous system as well as at the peripheral, including the gastrointestinal tract1-3. Their real-time monitoring will offer critical information for understanding neural function and diagnosing disease1-3. However, bioelectronic tools to monitor the dynamics of neurotransmitters in vivo, especially in the enteric nervous systems, are underdeveloped. This is mainly owing to the limited availability of biosensing tools that are capable of examining soft, complex and actively moving organs. Here we introduce a tissue-mimicking, stretchable, neurochemical biological interface termed NeuroString, which is prepared by laser patterning of a metal-complexed polyimide into an interconnected graphene/nanoparticle network embedded in an elastomer. NeuroString sensors allow chronic in vivo real-time, multichannel and multiplexed monoamine sensing in the brain of behaving mouse, as well as measuring serotonin dynamics in the gut without undesired stimulations and perturbing peristaltic movements. The described elastic and conformable biosensing interface has broad potential for studying the impact of neurotransmitters on gut microbes, brain-gut communication and may ultimately be extended to biomolecular sensing in other soft organs across the body.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-022-04615-2

  View details for PubMedID 35650358

• Topological supramolecular network enabled high-conductivity, stretchable organic bioelectronics. Science (New York, N.Y.) Jiang, Y., Zhang, Z., Wang, Y. X., Li, D., Coen, C. T., Hwaun, E., Chen, G., Wu, H. C., Zhong, D., Niu, S., Wang, W., Saberi, A., Lai, J. C., Wu, Y., Wang, Y., Trotsyuk, A. A., Loh, K. Y., Shih, C. C., Xu, W., Liang, K., Zhang, K., Bai, Y., Gurusankar, G., Hu, W., Jia, W., Cheng, Z., Dauskardt, R. H., Gurtner, G. C., Tok, J. B., Deisseroth, K., Soltesz, I., Bao, Z. 2022; 375 (6587): 1411-1417

  Abstract

  Intrinsically stretchable bioelectronic devices based on soft and conducting organic materials have been regarded as the ideal interface for seamless and biocompatible integration with the human body. A remaining challenge is to combine high mechanical robustness with good electrical conduction, especially when patterned at small feature sizes. We develop a molecular engineering strategy based on a topological supramolecular network, which allows for the decoupling of competing effects from multiple molecular building blocks to meet complex requirements. We obtained simultaneously high conductivity and crack-onset strain in a physiological environment, with direct photopatternability down to the cellular scale. We further collected stable electromyography signals on soft and malleable octopus and performed localized neuromodulation down to single-nucleus precision for controlling organ-specific activities through the delicate brainstem.

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.abj7564

  View details for PubMedID 35324282

• High-brightness all-polymer stretchable LED with charge-trapping dilution. Nature Zhang, Z., Wang, W., Jiang, Y., Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Lai, J., Niu, S., Xu, C., Shih, C., Wang, C., Yan, H., Galuska, L., Prine, N., Wu, H., Zhong, D., Chen, G., Matsuhisa, N., Zheng, Y., Yu, Z., Wang, Y., Dauskardt, R., Gu, X., Tok, J. B., Bao, Z. 2022; 603 (7902): 624-630

  Abstract

  Next-generation light-emitting displays on skin should be soft, stretchable and bright1-7. Previously reported stretchable light-emitting devices were mostly basedon inorganic nanomaterials, such as light-emitting capacitors, quantum dots or perovskites6-11. They either require high operating voltage or have limited stretchability and brightness, resolution or robustness under strain. On the other hand, intrinsically stretchable polymer materials hold the promise of good strain tolerance12,13. However, realizing high brightness remains a grand challenge for intrinsically stretchable light-emitting diodes. Here we report a material design strategy and fabrication processes to achieve stretchable all-polymer-based light-emitting diodes with high brightness (about 7,450candela per square metre), current efficiency (about 5.3candela per ampere) and stretchability (about 100per cent strain). We fabricate stretchable all-polymer light-emitting diodes coloured red, green and blue, achieving both on-skin wireless powering and real-time displaying of pulse signals. This work signifies a considerable advancement towards high-performance stretchable displays.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-022-04400-1

  View details for PubMedID 35322250

• High-frequency and intrinsically stretchable polymer diodes. Nature Matsuhisa, N., Niu, S., O'Neill, S. J., Kang, J., Ochiai, Y., Katsumata, T., Wu, H., Ashizawa, M., Wang, G. N., Zhong, D., Wang, X., Gong, X., Ning, R., Gong, H., You, I., Zheng, Y., Zhang, Z., Tok, J. B., Chen, X., Bao, Z. 2021; 600 (7888): 246-252

  Abstract

  Skin-like intrinsically stretchable soft electronic devices are essential to realize next-generation remote and preventative medicine for advanced personal healthcare1-4. The recent development of intrinsically stretchable conductors and semiconductors has enabled highly mechanically robust and skin-conformable electronic circuits or optoelectronic devices2,5-10. However, their operating frequencies have been limited to less than 100hertz, which is much lower than that required for many applications. Here we report intrinsically stretchable diodes-based on stretchable organic and nanomaterials-capable of operating at a frequency as high as 13.56megahertz. This operating frequency is high enough for the wireless operation of soft sensors and electrochromicdisplaypixels using radiofrequency identification in which the base-carrier frequency is 6.78megahertz or13.56megahertz. This was achieved through a combination of rational material design and device engineering. Specifically, we developed a stretchable anode, cathode, semiconductor and current collector that can satisfy the strict requirements for high-frequency operation. Finally, we show the operational feasibility of our diode by integrating it with a stretchable sensor, electrochromicdisplay pixel and antenna to realize a stretchable wireless tag. This work is an important step towards enabling enhanced functionalities and capabilities for skin-like wearable electronics.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/s41586-021-04053-6

  View details for PubMedID 34880427

• Monolithic optical microlithography of high-density elastic circuits. Science (New York, N.Y.) Zheng, Y. Q., Liu, Y., Zhong, D., Nikzad, S., Liu, S., Yu, Z., Liu, D., Wu, H. C., Zhu, C., Li, J., Tran, H., Tok, J. B., Bao, Z. 2021; 373 (6550): 88-94

  Abstract

  Polymeric electronic materials have enabled soft and stretchable electronics. However, the lack of a universal micro/nanofabrication method for skin-like and elastic circuits results in low device density and limited parallel signal recording and processing ability relative to silicon-based devices. We present a monolithic optical microlithographic process that directly micropatterns a set of elastic electronic materials by sequential ultraviolet light-triggered solubility modulation. We fabricated transistors with channel lengths of 2 micrometers at a density of 42,000 transistors per square centimeter. We fabricated elastic circuits including an XOR gate and a half adder, both of which are essential components for an arithmetic logic unit. Our process offers a route to realize wafer-level fabrication of complex, high-density, and multilayered elastic circuits with performance rivaling that of their rigid counterparts.

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.abh3551

  View details for PubMedID 34210882

• Artificial multimodal receptors based on ion relaxation dynamics. Science (New York, N.Y.) You, I. n., Mackanic, D. G., Matsuhisa, N. n., Kang, J. n., Kwon, J. n., Beker, L. n., Mun, J. n., Suh, W. n., Kim, T. Y., Tok, J. B., Bao, Z. n., Jeong, U. n. 2020; 370 (6519): 961–65

  Abstract

  Human skin has different types of tactile receptors that can distinguish various mechanical stimuli from temperature. We present a deformable artificial multimodal ionic receptor that can differentiate thermal and mechanical information without signal interference. Two variables are derived from the analysis of the ion relaxation dynamics: the charge relaxation time as a strain-insensitive intrinsic variable to measure absolute temperature and the normalized capacitance as a temperature-insensitive extrinsic variable to measure strain. The artificial receptor with a simple electrode-electrolyte-electrode structure simultaneously detects temperature and strain by measuring the variables at only two measurement frequencies. The human skin-like multimodal receptor array, called multimodal ion-electronic skin (IEM-skin), provides real-time force directions and strain profiles in various tactile motions (shear, pinch, spread, torsion, and so on).

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.aba5132

  View details for PubMedID 33214277

• Genetically targeted chemical assembly of functional materials in living cells, tissues, and animals. Science (New York, N.Y.) Liu, J. n., Kim, Y. S., Richardson, C. E., Tom, A. n., Ramakrishnan, C. n., Birey, F. n., Katsumata, T. n., Chen, S. n., Wang, C. n., Wang, X. n., Joubert, L. M., Jiang, Y. n., Wang, H. n., Fenno, L. E., Tok, J. B., Pașca, S. P., Shen, K. n., Bao, Z. n., Deisseroth, K. n. 2020; 367 (6484): 1372–76

  Abstract

  The structural and functional complexity of multicellular biological systems, such as the brain, are beyond the reach of human design or assembly capabilities. Cells in living organisms may be recruited to construct synthetic materials or structures if treated as anatomically defined compartments for specific chemistry, harnessing biology for the assembly of complex functional structures. By integrating engineered-enzyme targeting and polymer chemistry, we genetically instructed specific living neurons to guide chemical synthesis of electrically functional (conductive or insulating) polymers at the plasma membrane. Electrophysiological and behavioral analyses confirmed that rationally designed, genetically targeted assembly of functional polymers not only preserved neuronal viability but also achieved remodeling of membrane properties and modulated cell type-specific behaviors in freely moving animals. This approach may enable the creation of diverse, complex, and functional structures and materials within living systems.

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.aay4866

  View details for PubMedID 32193327

• Skin electronics from scalable fabrication of an intrinsically stretchable transistor array NATURE Wang, S., Xu, J., Wang, W., Wang, G., Rastak, R., Molina-Lopez, F., Chung, J., Niu, S., Feig, V. R., Lopez, J., Lei, T., Kwon, S., Kim, Y., Foudeh, A. M., Ehrlich, A., Gasperini, A., Yun, Y., Murmann, B., Tok, J., Bao, Z. 2018; 555 (7694): 83-+

  Abstract

  Skin-like electronics that can adhere seamlessly to human skin or within the body are highly desirable for applications such as health monitoring, medical treatment, medical implants and biological studies, and for technologies that include human-machine interfaces, soft robotics and augmented reality. Rendering such electronics soft and stretchable-like human skin-would make them more comfortable to wear, and, through increased contact area, would greatly enhance the fidelity of signals acquired from the skin. Structural engineering of rigid inorganic and organic devices has enabled circuit-level stretchability, but this requires sophisticated fabrication techniques and usually suffers from reduced densities of devices within an array. We reasoned that the desired parameters, such as higher mechanical deformability and robustness, improved skin compatibility and higher device density, could be provided by using intrinsically stretchable polymer materials instead. However, the production of intrinsically stretchable materials and devices is still largely in its infancy: such materials have been reported, but functional, intrinsically stretchable electronics have yet to be demonstrated owing to the lack of a scalable fabrication technology. Here we describe a fabrication process that enables high yield and uniformity from a variety of intrinsically stretchable electronic polymers. We demonstrate an intrinsically stretchable polymer transistor array with an unprecedented device density of 347 transistors per square centimetre. The transistors have an average charge-carrier mobility comparable to that of amorphous silicon, varying only slightly (within one order of magnitude) when subjected to 100 per cent strain for 1,000 cycles, without current-voltage hysteresis. Our transistor arrays thus constitute intrinsically stretchable skin electronics, and include an active matrix for sensory arrays, as well as analogue and digital circuit elements. Our process offers a general platform for incorporating other intrinsically stretchable polymer materials, enabling the fabrication of next-generation stretchable skin electronic devices.

  View details for PubMedID 29466334

• Highly stretchable polymer semiconductor films through the nanoconfinement effect SCIENCE Xu, J., Wang, S., Wang, G. N., Zhu, C., Luo, S., Jin, L., Gu, X., Chen, S., Feig, V. R., To, J. W., Rondeau-Gagne, S., Park, J., Schroeder, B. C., Lu, C., Oh, J. Y., Wang, Y., Kim, Y., Yan, H., Sinclair, R., Zhou, D., Xue, G., Murmann, B., Linder, C., Cai, W., Tok, J. B., Chung, J. W., Bao, Z. 2017; 355 (6320): 59-?

  Abstract

  Soft and conformable wearable electronics require stretchable semiconductors, but existing ones typically sacrifice charge transport mobility to achieve stretchability. We explore a concept based on the nanoconfinement of polymers to substantially improve the stretchability of polymer semiconductors, without affecting charge transport mobility. The increased polymer chain dynamics under nanoconfinement significantly reduces the modulus of the conjugated polymer and largely delays the onset of crack formation under strain. As a result, our fabricated semiconducting film can be stretched up to 100% strain without affecting mobility, retaining values comparable to that of amorphous silicon. The fully stretchable transistors exhibit high biaxial stretchability with minimal change in on current even when poked with a sharp object. We demonstrate a skinlike finger-wearable driver for a light-emitting diode.

  View details for DOI 10.1126/science.aah4496

  View details for PubMedID 28059762

• Intrinsically stretchable and healable semiconducting polymer for organic transistors NATURE Oh, J. Y., Rondeau-Gagne, S., Chiu, Y., Chortos, A., Lissel, F., Wang, G. N., Schroeder, B. C., Kurosawa, T., Lopez, J., Katsumata, T., Xu, J., Zhu, C., Gu, X., Bae, W., Kim, Y., Jin, L., Chung, J. W., Tok, J. B., Bao, Z. 2016; 539 (7629): 411-415

  Abstract

  Thin-film field-effect transistors are essential elements of stretchable electronic devices for wearable electronics. All of the materials and components of such transistors need to be stretchable and mechanically robust. Although there has been recent progress towards stretchable conductors, the realization of stretchable semiconductors has focused mainly on strain-accommodating engineering of materials, or blending of nanofibres or nanowires into elastomers. An alternative approach relies on using semiconductors that are intrinsically stretchable, so that they can be fabricated using standard processing methods. Molecular stretchability can be enhanced when conjugated polymers, containing modified side-chains and segmented backbones, are infused with more flexible molecular building blocks. Here we present a design concept for stretchable semiconducting polymers, which involves introducing chemical moieties to promote dynamic non-covalent crosslinking of the conjugated polymers. These non-covalent crosslinking moieties are able to undergo an energy dissipation mechanism through breakage of bonds when strain is applied, while retaining high charge transport abilities. As a result, our polymer is able to recover its high field-effect mobility performance (more than 1 square centimetre per volt per second) even after a hundred cycles at 100 per cent applied strain. Organic thin-film field-effect transistors fabricated from these materials exhibited mobility as high as 1.3 square centimetres per volt per second and a high on/off current ratio exceeding a million. The field-effect mobility remained as high as 1.12 square centimetres per volt per second at 100 per cent strain along the direction perpendicular to the strain. The field-effect mobility of damaged devices can be almost fully recovered after a solvent and thermal healing treatment. Finally, we successfully fabricated a skin-inspired stretchable organic transistor operating under deformations that might be expected in a wearable device.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/nature20102

  View details for Web of Science ID 000388161700050

  View details for PubMedID 27853213