Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Showing 1-100 of 176 Results
-
Karol Berger
Osgood Hooker Professor in Fine Arts and Professor, by courtesy, of German Studies
BioKarol Berger (Ph.D. Yale 1975) is the Osgood Hooker Professor in Fine Arts at the Department of Music, as well as an affiliated faculty at the Department of German Studies, and an affiliated researcher at the Europe Center. A native of Poland, he has lived in the U.S. since 1968 and taught at Stanford since 1982. He has received fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, American Council of Learned Societies, the Rockefeller Foundation’s Bellagio Study and Conference Center, and Stanford Humanities Center. In 2011-12 he has been the EURIAS Senior Fellow at the Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen in Vienna. In 2005-2006, he was the Robert Lehman Visiting Professor at Villa I Tatti, The Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies. He is a foreign member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, an honorary member of the American Musicological Society, and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His Musica Ficta received the 1988 Otto Kinkeldey Award of the American Musicological Society, and his Bach's Cycle, Mozart's Arrow the 2008 Marjorie Weston Emerson Award of the Mozart Society of America. In 2011 he received the Glarean Prize from the Swiss Musicological Society and in 2014 the Humboldt Research Award of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.
-
Jay Bhattacharya
Professor of Medicine, Senior Fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research and, by courtesy, at the Freeman Spogli Institute and Professor, by courtesy, of Health Research and Policy and of Economics
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMy research focuses on the constraints that vulnerable populations face in making decisions that affect their health status, as well as the effects of government policies and programs designed to benefit vulnerable populations.
-
Coit D Blacker
Ken Olivier and Angela Nomellini Professor in International Studies and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Emeritus
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsSoviet/Russian foreign policy and security policy; U.S. foreign policy and security policy; national and international security relations
-
Lisa Blaydes
Professor of Political Science and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
BioLisa Blaydes is Professor of Political Science at Stanford University. She is the author of Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak’s Egypt (Cambridge University Press, 2011) and State of Repression: Iraq under Saddam Hussein (Princeton University Press, 2018). Her articles have appeared in the American Political Science Review, Governance, International Studies Quarterly, International Organization, Journal of Theoretical Politics, Middle East Journal, Studies in Comparative International Development and World Politics. During the 2008-9 and 2009-2010 academic years, Professor Blaydes was an Academy Scholar at the Harvard Academy for International and Area Studies. During the 2015-16 academic year, she was a Fellow at the Center for Advance Study in the Behavior Sciences. She holds degrees in Political Science (PhD) from the University of California, Los Angeles and International Relations (BA, MA) from Johns Hopkins University.
-
Marshall Burke
Assistant Professor of Earth System Science, Center Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and, by courtesy, at the Woods Institute for the Environment
BioMarshall Burke is assistant professor in the Department of Earth System Science, and Center Fellow at the Center on Food Security and the Environment at Stanford University. His research focuses on social and economic impacts of environmental change, and on the economics of rural development in Africa. His work has appeared in both economics and scientific journals, including recent publications in Nature, Science, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, and the Review of Economics and Statistics. He holds a PhD in Agricultural and Resource Economics from UC Berkeley, and a BA in International Relations from Stanford.
Prospective students should see my personal webpage, linked at right. -
Martha Crenshaw
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsAs a lead investigator with the National Center for the Study of Terrorism and the Response to Terrorism (START) at the University of Maryland, funded by the Department of Homeland Security, Martha Crenshaw analyzed failed and foiled terrorist plots against the United States and its allies by jihadist groups since 1993. A dataset including events in the United States, the EU, and NATO countries follows the GTD coding rules.
-
Larry Diamond
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and at the Hoover Institution and Professor, by courtesy, of Sociology and of Political Science
Current Research and Scholarly Interestsdemocratic development and regime change; U.S. foreign policy affecting democracy abroad; comparative trends in the quality and stability of democracy in developing countries and postcommunist states; and public opinion in new democracies, especially in East Asia
-
Alberto Diaz-Cayeros
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Associate Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsComparative Politics, Political Economy, International Political Economy, Poverty, Rule of Law, Political Party Development
-
Karen Eggleston
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsHealth reform in China; comparative healthcare systems in Asia; government and market roles in the health sector; payment incentives; healthcare productivity; and economic implications of demographic change.
-
Karl Eikenberry
Professor of the Practice, Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsAsia-Pacific security; U.S.-China relations; civil-military relations; Central-South Asia; NATO; counterinsurgency strategy; and the role of the humanities and social sciences to America's global position
-
Donald Emmerson
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Emeritus
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsSoutheast Asia; ASEAN; Indonesia; China; regionalism; Islamism; democracy; governance; U.S. foreign policy; and the sociology of scholarly knowledge
-
Rodney Ewing
Frank Stanton Professor in Nuclear Security, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and at the Precourt Institute for Energy
BioRod Ewing is the Frank Stanton Professor in Nuclear Security in the Center for International Security and Cooperation in the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Professor in the Department of Geological Sciences in the School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences at Stanford University. He is the Edward H. Kraus Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at the University of Michigan, where he was in three Departments: Earth & Environmental Sciences, Nuclear Engineering & Radiological Sciences, and Materials Science and Engineering. He is also a Regents' Emeritus Professor at the University of New Mexico.
Ewing received a B.S. degree in geology from Texas Christian University (1968, summa cum laude) and M.S. (l972) and Ph.D. (l974, with distinction) degrees from Stanford University where he held an NSF Fellowship. His graduate studies focused on an esoteric group of minerals, metamict Nb-Ta-Ti oxides, which are unusual because they have become amorphous due to radiation damage caused by the presence of radioactive elements. Over the past forty years, the early study of these unusual minerals has blossomed into a broadly based research program on radiation effects in complex ceramic materials. This has led to the development of techniques to predict the long-term behavior of materials, such as those used in radioactive waste disposal. He is the author or co-author of over 750 research publications and the editor or co-editor of 18 monographs, proceedings volumes or special issues of journals. He has published widely in mineralogy, geochemistry, materials science, nuclear materials, physics and chemistry in over 100 different ISI journals. He has been granted a patent for the development of a highly durable material for the immobilization of excess weapons plutonium.
Ewing has received the Hawley Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada in 1997 and 2002, a Guggenheim Fellowship in 2002, the Dana Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America in 2006, the Lomonosov Gold Medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2006, a Honorary Doctorate from the Université Pierre et Marie Curie in 2007, Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America, and is a foreign Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He is also a fellow of the Geological Society of America, Mineralogical Society of America, American Geophysical Union, Geochemical Society and the European Association of Geochemistry, American Ceramic Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Materials Research Society. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2017.
He has been president of the Mineralogical Society of America (2002) and the International Union of Materials Research Societies (1997-1998). Ewing has served on the Board of Directors of the Geochemical Society (2012-2015) and the Board of Governors of the Gemological Institute of America (2006-2015). He is a member of the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and on the Editorial Board of Applied Physics Reviews . He is a founding Editor of the magazine Elements, which is now supported by 17 earth science societies, and a Founding Executive Editor of Geochemical Perspective Letters. He is a member of the Board of Earth Sciences and Resources of the National Academy of Science, Engineering and Medicine (2017-2020).
Professor Ewing is co-editor of and a contributing author of Radioactive Waste Forms for the Future (North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1988) and Uncertainty Underground – Yucca Mountain and the Nation’s High-Level Nuclear Waste (MIT Press, 2006). He has served on eleven National Research Council committees for the National Academy of Sciences that have reviewed issues related to nuclear waste and nuclear weapons. He was appointed by President Obama to Chair the Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board (2012-2017). -
Marcel Fafchamps
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research and Professor, by courtesy, of Economics
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsSee my personal website for all my recent working papers.
-
Walter Falcon
Helen C. Farnsworth Professor of International Agricultural Policy, Emeritus
Current Research and Scholarly Interestsbiotechnology; food security; food and agricultural policy in developing countries
-
James D. Fearon
Theodore and Frances Geballe Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Economics
Current Research and Scholarly Interestspolitical violence
-
Thomas Fingar
Lecturer, Walter H. Shorenstein Asia Pacific Research Center
BioThomas Fingar is a Shorenstein APARC Fellow in the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University. He was the inaugural Oksenberg-Rohlen Distinguished Fellow from 2010 through 2015 and the Payne Distinguished Lecturer at Stanford in 2009.
From 2005 through 2008, he served as the first deputy director of national intelligence for analysis and, concurrently, as chairman of the National Intelligence Council. Fingar served previously as assistant secretary of the State Department’s Bureau of Intelligence and Research (2000-01 and 2004-05), principal deputy assistant secretary (2001-03), deputy assistant secretary for analysis (1994-2000), director of the Office of Analysis for East Asia and the Pacific (1989-94), and chief of the China Division (1986-89). Between 1975 and 1986 he held a number of positions at Stanford University, including senior research associate in the Center for International Security and Arms Control.
Fingar is a graduate of Cornell University (A.B. in Government and History, 1968), and Stanford University (M.A., 1969 and Ph.D., 1977 both in political science). His most recent books are Reducing Uncertainty: Intelligence Analysis and National Security (Stanford University Press, 2011), The New Great Game: China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform, editor (Stanford, 2016), and Uneasy Partnerships: China and Japan, the Koreas, and Russia in the Era of Reform (Stanford, 2017). -
Francis Fukuyama
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsDeveloping nations; governance; international political economy; nation-building and democratization; strategic and security issues
-
Avner Greif
The Bowman Family Endowed Professor in Humanities and Sciences, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute and at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research and Professor, by courtesy, of History
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsEuropean economic history: the historical development of economic institutions, their interrelations with political, social and cultural factors and their impact on economic growth.
-
Gabrielle Hecht
Stanton Foundation Professor of Nuclear Security and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
BioGabrielle Hecht is Frank Stanton Foundation Professor of Nuclear Security at Stanford University, where she is appointed in the Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC) and the Department of History. She is also Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute, and affiliated with the Center for African Studies, the Program in Science, Technology, and Society, and the Program in Modern Thought and Literature. Before returning to Stanford in 2017, Hecht taught at the University of Michigan for over 18 years, where she served as Director of the Program in Science, Technology, and Society, associate director of the University of Michigan’s African Studies Center, and in other posts. She remains an active participant in UM’s collaborative project with the Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research (South Africa) on Joining Theory and Empiricism in the remaking of the African Humanities.
Hecht has written two award-winning books about nuclear things. Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade (2012) offers new perspectives on the global nuclear order. An abridged version appeared in French as Uranium Africain, une histoire globale (Le Seuil 2016). Hecht’s first book, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity (1998 & 2009; French editions 2004 & 2014), explores how the French embedded nuclear policy in reactor technology. She is currently writing a series of essays on radioactive and other forms of waste, tentatively titled Toxic Tales from the African Anthropocene.
Gabrielle Hecht holds a PhD in History and Sociology of Science from the University of Pennsylvania (1992), and a bachelor’s degree in Physics from MIT (1986). She’s been a visiting scholar in universities in Australia, France, the Netherlands, Norway, South Africa, and Sweden. Hecht’s work has been funded by the National Science Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council for Learned Societies, and the South African and Dutch national research foundations, among others. She serves on several advisory boards, including for the Andra, France’s national radioactive waste management agency. -
Siegfried Hecker
Professor (Research) of Management Science and Engineering and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Emeritus
Current Research and Scholarly Interestsplutonium science; nuclear weapons stockpile stewardship; cooperative threat reduction
-
Sam Heft-Neal
Social Science Research Associate, Center on Food Security and Environment at FSI
BioSam Heft-Neal is a Research Scholar at the Center on Food Security and the Environment at Stanford University. Sam is working to identify the impacts of environmental changes on agriculture, food availability and health around the world. His recent work combines household surveys with remote sensing data to examine environmental impacts on health. Sam holds a Ph.D. in Agricultural and Resource Economics from the University of California, Berkeley and a B.A. in Statistics and Economics from the same institution.
-
David Holloway
Raymond A. Spruance Professor of International History, Professor of Political Science and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Emeritus
Current Research and Scholarly Interestscivil wars; history of nuclear weapons
-
Takeo Hoshi
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Finance at the Graduate School of Business
BioTakeo Hoshi is the Henri and Tomoye Takahashi Senior Fellow at the Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center at Stanford University, and a professor of finance (by courtesy) at the Stanford Graduate School of Business.
Before he joined Stanford University in 2012, he was Pacific Economic Cooperation Professor in International Economic Relations at the Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies (IR/PS) at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where he conducted research and taught on the Japanese economy for 24 years.
Hoshi also serves on the Board of Directors at Union BanCal Corporation. He is also a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) and at the Tokyo Center for Economic Research (TCER). His main research interests include the study of the financial aspects of the Japanese economy, especially corporate finance, banking, and monetary policy. He received the 2011 Reischauer International Education Award of the Japan Society of San Diego and Tijuana, the 2006 Enjoji Jiro Memorial Prize of the Nihon Keizai Shimbun-sha, and the 2005 Japan Economic Association-Nakahara Prize.
His book titled Corporate Financing and Governance in Japan: The Road to the Future (MIT Press, 2001), co-authored with Anil Kashyap (Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago), received the Nikkei Award for the Best Economics Books of 2002. His other publications include, “Japanese Government Debt and Sustainability of Fiscal Policy” (with Takero Doi and Tatsuyoshi Okimoto), Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, 2011; “Corporate Restructuring in Japan during the Lost Decade” (with Satoshi Koibuchi and Ulrike Schaede), Japan’s Bubble, Deflation, and Long-term Stagnation, MIT Press, 2011 (Koichi Hamada, Anil K Kashyap, and David E. Weinstein, eds.); “Will the U.S. Bank Recapitalization Succeed? Eight Lessons from Japan” (with Anil Kashyap), Journal of Financial Economics, 2010;and “Zombie Lending and Depressed Restructuring in Japan” (joint with Ricardo Caballero and Anil Kashyap), American Economic Review, December 2008. He has been the editor-in-chief of the Journal of the Japanese and International Economies since 1999.
Hoshi received his BA in social sciences from the University of Tokyo in 1983, and a PhD in economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1988. -
Saumitra Jha
Associate Professor of Political Economy at the GSB, Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute, at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research & Associate Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science and of Economics
BioSaumitra Jha is an Associate Professor of Political Economy at Stanford’s Graduate School of Business, and, by courtesy, of Economics and of Political Science.
Saumitra holds a BA from Williams College, master’s degrees in economics and mathematics from the University of Cambridge, and a PhD in economics from Stanford University. Prior to joining the GSB, he was an Academy Scholar at Harvard University. He has been a Fellow of the Niehaus Center for Globalization and Governance and the Center for the Study of Democratic Politics at Princeton University and received the Michael Wallerstein Award for best published article in Political Economy from the American Political Science Association in 2014 for his research on ethnic tolerance. Saumitra has consulted on economic and political risk issues for the United Nations/ WTO and the World Bank. -
Colin Kahl
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Professor, by courtesy, of Political Science
BioColin H. Kahl is co-director of the Center for International Security and Cooperation, the inaugural Steven C. Házy Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, and a Professor, by courtesy, in the Department of Political Science at Stanford University. He is also a Strategic Consultant to the Penn Biden Center for Diplomacy and Global Engagement.
From October 2014 to January 2017, he was Deputy Assistant to the President and National Security Advisor to the Vice President. In that position, he served as a senior advisor to President Obama and Vice President Biden on all matters related to U.S. foreign policy and national security affairs, and represented the Office of the Vice President as a standing member of the National Security Council Deputies’ Committee. From February 2009 to December 2011, Dr. Kahl was the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for the Middle East at the Pentagon. In this capacity, he served as the senior policy advisor to the Secretary of Defense for Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, and six other countries in the Levant and Persian Gulf region. In June 2011, he was awarded the Secretary of Defense Medal for Outstanding Public Service by Secretary Robert Gates.
From 2007 to 2017 (when not serving in the U.S. government), Dr. Kahl was an assistant and associate professor in the Security Studies Program at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service. From 2007 to 2009 and 2012 to 2014, he was also a Senior Fellow at the Center for a New American Security (CNAS), a nonpartisan Washington, DC-based think tank. From 2000 to 2007, he was an assistant professor of political science at the University of Minnesota. In 2005-2006, Dr. Kahl took leave from the University of Minnesota to serve as a Council on Foreign Relations International Affairs Fellow in the Office of the Secretary of Defense, where he worked on issues related to counterinsurgency, counterterrorism, and responses to failed states. In 1997-1998, he was a National Security Fellow at the John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies at Harvard University.
Current research includes an assessment of American grand strategy in the Middle East in the post-9/11 era. A second research project focuses on the implications of emerging technologies on nuclear strategic stability.
He has published numerous articles on international security and U.S. foreign and defense policy in Foreign Affairs, Foreign Policy, International Security, the Los Angeles Times, Middle East Policy, the National Interest, the New Republic, the New York Times, Politico, the Washington Post, and the Washington Quarterly, as well as several reports for CNAS.
His previous research analyzed the causes and consequences of violent civil and ethnic conflict in developing countries, focusing particular attention on the demographic and natural resource dimensions of these conflicts. His book on the subject, States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World, was published by Princeton University Press in 2006, and related articles and chapters have appeared in International Security, the Journal of International Affairs, and various edited volumes.
Dr. Kahl received his B.A. in political science from the University of Michigan (1993) and his Ph.D. in political science from Columbia University (2000). -
Stephen Krasner
Graham H. Stuart Professor of International Relations and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, at the Hoover Institution and at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research
Current Research and Scholarly Interestsexternal efforts to promote better governance in areas of limited statehood
-
George Krompacky
Publications Manager, FSI - S-APARC
Current Role at StanfordPublications Manager at the Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center
-
Kenji Kushida
Social Science Research Associate, Walter H. Shorenstein Asia Pacific Research Center
BioKenji E. Kushida is the Japan Program Research Associate at the Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center and an affiliated researcher at the Berkeley Roundtable on the International Economy.
Kushida’s research interests are in the fields of comparative politics, political economy, and information technology. He has four streams of academic research and publication: political economy issues surrounding information technology such as Cloud Computing; institutional and governance structures of Japan’s Fukushima nuclear disaster; political strategies of foreign multinational corporations in Japan; and Japan’s political economic transformation since the 1990s.
Kushida has written two general audience books in Japanese, entitled Biculturalism and the Japanese: Beyond English Linguistic Capabilities (Chuko Shinsho, 2006) and International Schools, an Introduction (Fusosha, 2008).
Kushida holds a PhD in political science from the University of California, Berkeley. His received his MA in East Asian Studies and BAs in economics and East Asian Studies with Honors, all from Stanford University. -
Gail Lapidus
Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Emerita
Current Research and Scholarly Interestsethnic conflict in the former Soviet Union; the Russian-Chechen war; Soviet society, politics and foreign policy
-
Tanya S Lee
Staff, FSI
Temporary employee, FSIBioTanya Lee is the instructor for the China Scholars Program at the Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education (SPICE).
Bio: https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/people/tanya-lee -
Yong Suk Lee
Center Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
BioYong Suk Lee is the SK Center Fellow at Stanford University’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and is affiliated with the Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, the Center for Global Poverty and Development, and the Center for East Asian Studies.
Lee's research is in the fields of labor economics, technology and entrepreneurship, and urban economics. His current research examines digital technology and labor, focusing on how new technologies will affect labor and how societies react to new technologies. In relation to technology and labor, Lee's research also examines various aspects of entrepreneurship, e.g., entrepreneurship and economic growth, entrepreneurship education, and factors that promote productive entrepreneurship.
Prior to joining Stanford, Lee was an assistant professor of economics at Williams College in Massachusetts. He received his PhD in Economics from Brown University, a Master of Public Policy from Duke University, and bachelor's degree and master's degree in architecture from Seoul National University. Lee also worked as a real estate development consultant and architecture designer as he transitioned from architecture to economics. -
Phillip Y. Lipscy
Assistant Professor of Political Science and Center Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsInternational and comparative political economy; international security; Japanese politics; US-Japan relations; regional cooperation in East and South East Asia.
-
David Lobell
Professor of Earth System Science and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute, at the Woods Institute for the Environment and at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsWe study the interactions between food production, food security, and the environment using a range of modern tools.
-
Prashant Loyalka
Assistant Professor of Education and Center Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies
Current Research and Scholarly InterestsPrashant's research focuses on examining/addressing inequalities in the education of youth and on understanding/improving the quality of education received by youth in large developing economies, including China, Russia and India. In the course of addressing educational inequalities, Prashant examines the consequences of tracking, financial and informational constraints, as well as social and psychological factors in highly competitive education systems. His work on understanding educational quality is built around research that assesses and compares student learning in higher education, high school and compulsory schooling. He furthermore conducts large-scale evaluations of educational programs and policies that seek to improve student outcomes.
