Stanford University


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  • Peter Rudd, MD

    Peter Rudd, MD

    Professor of Medicine (General Internal Medicine) at the Stanford University Medical Center, Emeritus

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsQuality improvement efforts seek to make medical care the “best it can be” rather than merely “good enough” to avoid censure. Focus on improving the average performance usually produces more net benefit than eliminating outliers, often by simplification, standardization, and specification. We have worked with electronic medication monitors, clinical databases, and computerized order entry systems for better clinical outcomes and trained clinicians for professionalism and accountability.

  • Tope Rude, MD

    Tope Rude, MD

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Urology

    BioDr. Rude is a board-certified, fellowship-trained urologist and pelvic reconstructive surgeon with Stanford Health Care Pelvic Health Center and the Stanford Urology Clinic. She is also a clinical assistant professor in the Department of Urology at Stanford University School of Medicine.

    Dr. Rude specializes in pelvic medicine and reconstructive surgery. She is skilled in male and female genitourinary (urinary tract and reproductive organ) reconstruction, complex voiding dysfunction (issues with urinating), and neurourology (bladder problems related to spinal injuries and neurological disorders). She offers the full spectrum of care for pelvic organ prolapse, customized for the individual patient, and including vaginal surgery, robot assisted surgery, mesh augmented repairs, hysterectomy and obliterative procedures. She also offers broad surgical options for urethral reconstruction, including novel minimally invasive techniques, open repair with graft augmentation, and robot assisted repairs. Robotic approaches to care for distal ureteral stricture disease, neurogenic bladder and urinary fistula allow her to provide excellent outcomes for patients.

    Her research interests include improving patient-reported outcomes after pelvic organ prolapse surgery, as well as the medical and surgical management of neurogenic (nervous system based) bladder and complex voiding dysfunction. She has also studied the interaction between race and prostate cancer treatment among the veteran population. Her active research endeavors include clinical trial of a novel implanted peripheral neuromodulation device for urgency incontinence and multi-center studies of voiding dysfunction.

    Dr. Rude has received numerous awards, including winning first place in the socioeconomic category of the American Urologic Association’s (AUA) New York Section Annual Valentine Essay Contest. She also won best presentation at AUA’s Veteran Affairs Forum. Dr. Rude received the Society of Urodynamics, Female Pelvic Medicine & Urogenital Reconstruction (SUFU) Chemodenervation Grant and the National Institutes of Health/National Medical Association Travel Award.

    Dr. Rude has published in several peer-reviewed journals, including Cancer, The Journal of Urology, and Urology. She has delivered presentations at the annual meetings of AUA and SUFU. In addition, she has presented at the World Congress of Endourology and Uro-Technology.

    Dr. Rude is a member of AUA and SUFU. She is awas an inaugural fellow of the Well Black Woman Institute, which is part of The Foundation for Black Women’s Wellness in Madison, Wisconsin.

  • Brian Ruhle, MD, MS

    Brian Ruhle, MD, MS

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Surgery - General Surgery

    BioDr. Ruhle is a board-certified surgeon with dual fellowship training in bariatric and minimally invasive surgery from Stanford Health Care and endocrine surgery from UCLA Health. He also serves as a clinical assistant professor in the Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery at Stanford University School of Medicine.

    Dr. Ruhle specializes in bariatric (weight loss) surgery, foregut (upper digestive tract) surgery, and abdominal wall reconstruction. He uses leading-edge laparoscopic and robotic surgical techniques to help patients achieve sustainable weight loss and improve obesity related health conditions. His expertise in advanced minimally invasive procedures offers patients significant benefits, including faster recoveries, reduced pain, and shorter hospital stays.

    Dr. Ruhle’s research interests span a wide range of topics in metabolic and bariatric surgery. His studies have explored combination therapy for obesity management, improved screening and treatment of endocrine disorders, and optimizing outcomes in thyroid and parathyroid surgery. He has published his findings in numerous peer-reviewed journals, including Surgery, Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Blood, and Journal of the American College of Surgeons.

    During his surgical training, Dr. Ruhle presented at prominent national and regional meetings, including the annual meetings of the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons and American College of Surgeons Clinical Congress. His presentations have addressed innovative topics such as using GLP-1 agonists (medications that help regulate blood sugar and reduce appetite) before bariatric surgery. His presentations have also addressed improving screening protocols for hyperaldosteronism (high blood pressure caused by the excess production of the hormone aldosterone).

    Dr. Ruhle is a member of the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons, American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Clinical Association of California Endocrinologists, and Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons.

  • Maria Ruiz-Primo

    Maria Ruiz-Primo

    Associate Professor of Education

    BioMaria Araceli Ruiz-Primo is an Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Education, Stanford University. Her work, funded mainly by the National Science Foundation and the Institute of Education Sciences, examines assessment practices and the assessment of student learning both in the classroom and in large-scale assessment programs. Her publications address the development and evaluation of multiple learning assessment strategies, including concept maps and students’ science notebooks, and the study of teachers’ informal and formal formative assessment practices, such as the use of assessment conversations and embedded assessments. She also has conducted research on the development and evaluation of assessments that are instructionally sensitive and instruments intended to measure teachers’ formative assessment practices. Recently she has worked on the analysis of state testing programs. She was co-editor of a special issue on assessment in the Journal of Research in Science Teaching and a special issue on classroom assessment in the Journal of Educational Measurement. She has published in Science, Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, the Journal of Research in Science Teaching, and other major technical educational research journals.

  • Cristin Runfola

    Cristin Runfola

    Clinical Professor, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsDr. Runfola's research focuses on the epidemiology of dysregulated eating and weight concerns in undeserved populations and her primary interest is in developing and testing the efficacy of clinical interventions designed to improve outcome for eating disorders.

    With support from GFED, Dr. Runfola adapted the Uniting Couples in the treatment of Anorexia Nervosa (UCAN) therapy manual for couples in which one or both members have binge-eating disorder (UNITE) and recently completed pilot testing on this treatment. She is in the process of expanding this treatment for all couples affected by binge eating, and is submitting a grant to fund future work testing efficacy.

  • Stephen Ruoss

    Stephen Ruoss

    Professor of Medicine (Pulmonary and Critical Care)

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsWe have an active collaborative project examining basic and clinical aspects of non-tuberculous mycobacterial lung infection in non-immune compromised adults. Studies have examined possible cellular immune mechanisms for increased susceptibility to these infections, and are also investigating aspects of optimal diagnosis and treatment. In addition, a clinical and translational research program is investigating the causes and genetic factors underlying the evolution of bronchiectasis.

  • Christopher John Russell

    Christopher John Russell

    Associate Professor of Pediatrics (Hospital Medicine)

    BioDr. Russell is an Associate Professor of Pediatrics in the Division of Pediatric Hospital Medicine and a board-certified academic pediatric hospitalist at Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital. His clinical responsibilities include caring for children hospitalized for a variety of illnesses. His research focuses on developing evidence-based care for hospitalized children with medical complexity, including acute respiratory infections (such as pneumonia and bacterial tracheitis). His research efforts have been recognized through receipt of the University of Southern California’s Clinical and Translational Science Institute’s KL2 Mentored Research Career Development Award (2014-16), the Academic Pediatric Association’s Young Investigator Award (2015-16), the NIH Loan Repayment Program (2017-2021) and a large grant from the Gerber Foundation (2020-2022). In August 2021, he received a five-year R01 award from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality to study bacterial respiratory infections in children with tracheostomy. Outside of his clinical and research responsibilities, Dr. Russell focuses on research mentorship of medical students, pediatric residents, and pediatric hospital medicine fellows as well as improving representation of underrepresented minorities in medicine throughout the continuum of physician training. Dr. Russell completed a term as the chair of the Academic Pediatric Association’s Membership, Diversity, and Inclusion Committee (2022-2025) and is on the Executive Committee for the Pediatric Research in Inpatient Settings research network. Dr. Russell is active in the AAP and currently serves as an Associate Editor for the journal Hospital Pediatrics.

  • Mirabela Rusu

    Mirabela Rusu

    Assistant Professor of Radiology (Integrative Biomedical Imaging Informatics) and, by courtesy, of Biomedical Data Science and of Urology

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsDr. Mirabela Rusu focuses on developing analytic methods for biomedical data integration, with a particular interest in radiology-pathology fusion. Such integrative methods may be applied to create comprehensive multi-scale representations of biomedical processes and pathological conditions, thus enabling their in-depth characterization.

  • Florentine Rutaganira

    Florentine Rutaganira

    Assistant Professor of Biochemistry and of Developmental Biology

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsWe use chemical tools to decipher the roles of key signaling networks in choanoflagellates, single-celled organisms that are the closest living relatives of animals. Choanoflagellates produce molecular signals essential for intercellular communication in animals and the presence of these molecules in choanoflagellates suggests that signaling components needed to communicate between cells is evolutionarily ancient. We aim to uncover new understanding of animal development, physiology and disease.

  • Brian Rutt

    Brian Rutt

    Professor of Radiology (Radiological Sciences Lab), Emeritus

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMy research interests center on MRI research, including high-field and high-resolution MRI technology development as well as applications of advanced MRI techniques to studying the brain, cardiovascular system and cancer.

  • Nancy Ruttenburg

    Nancy Ruttenburg

    William Robertson Coe Professor of American Literature, Emerita

    BioNancy Ruttenburg is the William Robertson Coe Professor of American Literature in the English Department at Stanford. She also holds courtesy appointments in the Department of Comparative Literature and the Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures. She received the PhD in Comparative Literature from Stanford (1988) and taught at Harvard, Berkeley, and most recently at NYU, where she was chair of the Department of Comparative Literature from 2002-2008. Her research interests lie at the intersection of political, religious, and literary expression in colonial through antebellum America and nineteenth-century Russia, with a particular focus on the development of liberal and non-liberal forms of democratic subjectivity. Related interests include history of the novel, novel theory, and the global novel; philosophy of religion and ethics; and problems of comparative method, especially as they pertain to North American literature and history.

    Prof. Ruttenburg is the author of Democratic Personality: Popular Voice and the Trial of American Authorship (Stanford UP, 1998) and Dostoevsky's Democracy (Princeton UP, 2008), and she has recently written on the work of J. M. Coetzee and on Melville’s “Bartleby.” Books in progress include a study of secularization in the postrevolutionary United States arising out of the naturalization of “conscience” as inalienable right, entitled Conscience, Rights, and 'The Delirium of Democracy'; and a comparative work entitled Dostoevsky And for which the Russian writer serves as a lens on the historical development of a set of intercalated themes in the literature of American modernity. These encompass self-making and self-loss (beginning with Frederick Douglass's serial autobiographies); sentimentalism and sadism (in abolitionist fiction); crime and masculinity (including Mailer's The Executioner's Song); and the intersection of race, religious fundamentalism, and radical politics (focusing on the works of James Baldwin and Marilynne Robinson). Her courses will draw from both these projects.

    Prof. Ruttenburg is past president of the Charles Brockden Brown Society and has been the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship, a National Humanities Center Fellowship, a University of California President's Research Fellowship, as well as fellowships from the Social Science Research Council for Russian and East European Studies, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the American Council for Learned Societies.

  • maura ruzhnikov

    maura ruzhnikov

    Member, Maternal & Child Health Research Institute (MCHRI)

    BioChild neurologist and medical geneticist focusing on the diagnosis and management of rare neurologic disorders. Specific interests are in genetic epilepsy syndromes, childhood neurodegenerative and neurometabolic diseases and undiagnosed suspected genetic conditions.

  • Katherine Jane Ryan

    Katherine Jane Ryan

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Pediatrics - Hematology & Oncology
    Clinical Assistant Professor (By courtesy), Adult Neurology

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsDr. Katherine “Katie” Ryan is a pediatric neuro-oncologist whose research focuses on developing and translating cellular immunotherapies for children with malignant brain tumors. She leads the first-in-human trial of GPC2-directed CAR T cells for CNS Embryonal Tumors. As a member of Stanford Children’s world-renowned pediatric brain tumor team, she diagnoses and treats children with CNS tumors while advancing innovative trial design, intracerebroventricular delivery, and correlative science.

  • Tracy Rydel

    Tracy Rydel

    Clinical Professor, Medicine - Primary Care and Population Health

    BioTracy Rydel is Clinical Professor of Medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine where she holds the positions of Assistant Dean for Clerkship Education and Director, Core Clerkship in Family and Community Medicine. She has also served as the Director of Medical Student Education in the Division of Primary Care and Population Health, and was an Educator-4-CARE faculty from 2017-2020. She is a family physician with a passion for medical education. She completed the Rathmann Family Foundation Fellowship in Patient-centered Care and Medical Education in 2012, was in the first wave of peer coaches in the Peer Coaching Program under the Stanford Teaching and Mentoring Academy, and was the Director of the Practice of Medicine Year One Course at Stanford from 2013-2016. She emphasizes patient-centered care in the pursuit of clinical and educational excellence. She is frequently an invited presenter at the national conferences of the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine (STFM), and the Western Group on Educational Affairs (WGEA) regional group of the AAMC; her scholarly work focuses on medical education endeavors, including equity and justice in systems of medical education assessment. She has also presented and published on topics in nutrition education and the teaching kitchen, working with medical scribes, Entrustable Professional Activities, primary care career recruitment and mentoring, procedures training, time management in ambulatory teaching, communication skills, virtual health and telehealth, teaching gender-affirming primary care, and learning communities.

  • Raya Saab

    Raya Saab

    Lindhard Family Professor of Pediatric Cancer Biology

    BioOur laboratory focuses on investigating molecular mechanisms of oncogene-induced tumorigenesis and tumor suppressor pathways, and oncogenic signaling in the pediatric solid tumor rhabdomyosarcoma. Our earlier work identified the tumor suppressors p53 and p18Ink4c as inhibitors of Cyclin D1-driven tumorigenesis in a pineoblastoma model, through senescence induction, and highlighted distinct roles for the the RB and p53 pathways in induction and maintenance of oncogene-induced senescence. We also identified CDK2 as a potential target for inducing senescence in premalignant lesions to inhibit tumor progression.
    Our current focus is on studying oncogenic signaling and tumor suppression in the childhood tumor rhabdomyosarcoma, to identify key mediators of invasion and metastasis, which is the most common cause of treatment failure clinically. We use preclinical in vitro and in vivo models, including murine and human cell lines, and mouse models of disease.
    We have recently uncovered a paracrine role for rhabdomyosarcoma-secreted exosomes in impacting biology of stromal cells. Rhabdomyosarcoma-derived exosomes carry specific miRNA cargo that imparts an invasive and migratory phenotype on normal recipient fibroblasts, and proteomic analysis revealed specific and unique pathways relevant to the two different molecular rhabdomyosarcoma subtypes that are driven by distinct oncogenic pathways. We identified that the driver oncogene in fusion-positive rhabdomyosarcoma, PAX3-FOXO1, modulates exosome cargo to promote invasion, migration, and angiogenic properties, and identified specific microRNA and protein cargo acting as effectors of PAX3-FOXO1 exosome-mediated signaling, including modulation of oxidative stress response and cell survival signaling.
    Our ongoing work is focused on interrogating specific paracrine signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms of metastatic disease progression in rhabdomyosarcoma, for potential therapeutic targeting.

  • Chiara Sabatti

    Chiara Sabatti

    Professor of Biomedical Data Science and of Statistics
    On Leave from 10/01/2025 To 03/27/2026

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsStatistical models and reasoning are key to our understanding of the genetic basis of human traits. Modern high-throughput technology presents us with new opportunities and challenges. We develop statistical approaches for high dimensional data in the attempt of improving our understanding of the molecular basis of health related traits.

  • Amin Saberi

    Amin Saberi

    Professor of Management Science and Engineering and, by courtesy, of Computer Science

    BioAmin Saberi is Professor of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford University. He received his B.Sc. from Sharif University of Technology and his Ph.D. from Georgia Institute of Technology in Computer Science. His research interests include algorithms, design and analysis of social networks, and applications. He is a recipient of the Terman Fellowship, Alfred Sloan Fellowship and several best paper awards.
    Amin was the founding CEO and chairman of NovoEd Inc., a social learning environment designed in his research lab and used by universities such as Stanford as well as non-profit and for-profit institutions for offering courses to hundreds of thousands of learners around the world.

  • Jeremy Sabol

    Jeremy Sabol

    SLE Associate Director

    BioJeremy Sabol is the Associate Director of Stanford's Program in Structured Liberal Education (SLE), where he has taught as a Lecturer since 2003. Jeremy majored in physics and literature as an undergraduate, then received his Ph.D. in French. His dissertation examined the conceptual role of fiction in Descartes' physics and philosophy, as well as the impact of this use of fiction in later 17th-century French literary texts. Jeremy specializes in early modern European thought and French existentialism. Jeremy also teaches the history & ethics of design at Stanford's d.school, and he has lectured for Stanford's Master of Liberal Arts program since 2012.

  • Zahra Sadat-Hossieny, MD

    Zahra Sadat-Hossieny, MD

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Adult Neurology

    BioZahra Sadat-Hossieny, MD, is a board-certified neurologist who completed her fellowship in clinical epilepsy at Stanford University Hospitals and Clinics. She finished her residency in neurology at the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. She obtained her medical degree and a certificate in global health from the George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences.

    She has extensive experience treating patients with epilepsy and currently provides care through the Comprehensive Epilepsy and Comprehensive Neurology Programs at Stanford Health Care. In addition to her clinical responsibilities, Dr. Sadat-Hossieny also teaches future generations of clinicians as an assistant professor at Stanford School of Medicine in the Department of Neurology, Epilepsy, and Comprehensive Neurology.

    Dr. Sadat-Hossieny has authored several peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters. She has presented her research orally and through posters at various conferences. During her fellowship at Stanford University Hospitals and Clinics, she used advanced diagnostic techniques including video-EEG monitoring, computerized brainwave mapping, diagnostic imaging, neuropsychiatric testing, and functional mapping to accurately diagnose epilepsy and conditions imitating epilepsy. She also gained expertise in the most advanced forms of epilepsy treatment including neuromodulation, epilepsy surgery and medications specific to epilepsy. Her research focused on the cognitive effects of anti-seizure medications on patients with epilepsy and their children. She has also published on the importance of nutrient supplementation on cognition in patients taking anti-seizure medications. Her collaborations include projects that assess and improve patients’ understanding of their own seizure types.

  • Agustina D Saenz

    Agustina D Saenz

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Medicine

    BioAgustina Saenz is a Clinical Assistant Professor in the Division of Hospital Medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine. She earned her medical degree from the Universidad de Buenos Aires and completed her internal medicine residency, and later served as Chief Resident at Einstein Medical Center. She further pursued graduate studies at Harvard, earning a Master in Public Health from the T.H. Chan School of Public Health and a Master in Biomedical Informatics from Harvard Medical School. She also completed a Clinical Informatics fellowship at Mass General Brigham prior to joining the Stanford faculty.

    Dr. Saenz’s work bridges clinical care, AI research, and health system operations. At Curai Health, she serves as a Senior Clinical Informaticist, focusing on optimizing large language models to improve diagnostic reasoning and patient safety. Her academic interests include the responsible deployment of AI in healthcare, evaluation of model generalizability, and developing system-level interventions to advance health equity. Prior to her current role, she served as Unit Medical Director and Chair of the Hiring Committee at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, where she led initiatives to enhance quality metrics and foster inclusive hiring practices.

  • Rebecca Saenz

    Rebecca Saenz

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Pediatrics - Immunology

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsAllergy, Immunology, Bioengineering and Biodesign

  • Samuel Ricardo Saenz

    Samuel Ricardo Saenz

    Clinical Assistant Professor, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

    BioDr. Sam Saenz was born in the Bay Area and received his bachelor’s degree in psychology from Stanford University. He completed his medical degree at UC Irvine’s Program in Medical Education for the Latino Community, and he also obtained a Master’s in Public Health from UC Berkeley. After serving as chief psychiatry resident during his psychiatry residency at Stanford, he completed a fellowship in public psychiatry at UC San Francisco. His professional interests include fostering the next generation of diverse mental health providers and community advocacy.

  • Debra Safer

    Debra Safer

    Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (General Psychiatry and Psychology-Adult)

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsPrimary research interests include the nature and treatment of eating disorders
    (particularly bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder), the development and treatment of obesity, and the development and treatment of problematic eating patterns in patients following bariatric surgery.

  • Gabriella Safran

    Gabriella Safran

    Senior Associate Dean of Humanities and Arts, Eva Chernov Lokey Professor of Jewish Studies, Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures and, by courtesy, of German Studies and of Comparative Literature

    BioGabriella Safran has written on Russian, Polish, Yiddish, and French literatures and cultures. Her most recent monograph, Wandering Soul: The Dybbuk's Creator, S. An-sky (Harvard, 2010), is a biography of an early-twentieth-century Russian-Yiddish writer who was also an ethnographer, a revolutionary, and a wartime relief worker.

    Safran teaches and writes on Russian literature, Yiddish literature, folklore, and folkloristics. She is now working on two monograph projects: one on how people in the Russian Empire listened across social lines, recorded and imitated others’ voices in various media, and reflected on listening and vocal imitation, from the 1830s to the 1880s, and the other on the international pre-history of the Jewish joke.

    For more information about her activities and publications, see https://dlcl.stanford.edu/people/gabriella-safran

  • Marc R. Safran, MD

    Marc R. Safran, MD

    Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsDr. Safran’s practice focuses on arthroscopic management of hip problems as well as articular cartilage regeneration, shoulder surgery and athletic shoulder and elbow problems. He is actively involved in research in these areas.

  • Scott D. Sagan

    Scott D. Sagan

    Caroline S. G. Munro Memorial Professor of Political Science and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsJust War doctrine and the development of norms concerning the use of force; public attitudes in the U.S., U.K., France, and Israel about the use of nuclear weapons and non-combatant casualties; organizations and management of insider threats; the management of hazardous technology; security of nuclear materials, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the Non-Proliferation Treaty.

  • Julien Sage

    Julien Sage

    Elaine and John Chambers Professor of Pediatric Cancer and Professor of Genetics

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsWe investigate the mechanisms by which normal cells become tumor cells, and we combine genetics, genomics, and proteomics approaches to investigate the differences between the proliferative response in response to injury and the hyperproliferative phenotype of cancer cells and to identify novel therapeutic targets in cancer cells.

  • Manish Saggar

    Manish Saggar

    Associate Professor (Research) of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (Interdisciplinary Brain Science Research)

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsWe are a computational neuropsychiatry lab dedicated to developing computational methods to better understand brain’s overall dynamical organization in healthy and patient populations. We employ algorithms from a wide range of fields, including Applied Mathematics, Econometrics, Machine Learning, Biophysics, and Network Science.

  • Mehran Sahami

    Mehran Sahami

    Tencent Chair of the of the Computer Science Department, James and Ellenor Chesebrough Professor and Senior Fellow, by courtesy, at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies

    BioMehran Sahami is Tencent Chair of the Computer Science Department and the James and Ellenor Chesebrough Professor in the School of Engineering. As a Professor (Teaching) in the Computer Science department, he is also a Bass Fellow in Undergraduate Education and previously served as the Associate Chair for Education in Computer Science. Prior to joining the Stanford faculty, he was a Senior Research Scientist at Google. His research interests include computer science education, artificial intelligence, and ethics. He served as co-chair of the ACM/IEEE-CS joint task force on Computer Science Curricula 2013, which created curricular guidelines for college programs in Computer Science at an international level. He has also served as chair of the ACM Education Board, an elected member of the ACM Council, and was appointed by California Governor Jerry Brown to the state's Computer Science Strategic Implementation Plan Advisory Panel.

  • Kristin Sainani (n e Cobb)

    Kristin Sainani (n e Cobb)

    Professor (Teaching) of Epidemiology and Population Health

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsScience writing, science communication, biostatistics. Research areas: osteoporosis, stress fractures, sports injuries, female athlete triad.

  • Debbie C. Sakaguchi Sakai

    Debbie C. Sakaguchi Sakai

    Clinical Professor, Pediatrics

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMedical education, shared decision making, resuscitation.

  • Kathleen M. Sakamoto

    Kathleen M. Sakamoto

    Shelagh Galligan Professor in the School of Medicine

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMy research focuses on the molecular pathways that regulate normal and aberrant blood cell development, including acute leukemia and bone marrow failure syndromes. We are also studying novel drugs for treatment of cancer.

  • Sarada Sakamuri, MD

    Sarada Sakamuri, MD

    Clinical Associate Professor, Adult Neurology
    Clinical Associate Professor (By courtesy), Neurosurgery

    BioDr. Sarada Sakamuri is a neurologist, neurophysiologist, and sonographer who specializes in the care of patients with nerve injuries and other neuromuscular disorders. As Co-Director of the Center for Peripheral Nerve Surgery, she oversees coordinated care in conjunction with the Neurology Clinic, Neurodiagnostic Lab, and Neurosurgery Clinic. She serves on multiple interdisciplinary teams focused on the care of patients with nerve conditions, including the Stanford Nerve Team, Stanford Facial Nerve Center, Stanford Women's Neurology Program, and Stanford Periprocedural Nerve Symptom Pathway.

    She is an expert in the use of nerve and muscle ultrasound to diagnose and manage neuromuscular conditions. She performs advanced diagnostic evaluations of peripheral nerve conditions, integrating nerve and muscle ultrasound and neurophysiologic EMG/NCS testing at the bedside. She has advanced training in nerve and muscle ultrasound has served on the American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine (AANEM)'s Neuromuscular Ultrasound Committee and Neuromuscular Ultrasound Exam Committee.

    She also plays an active role in graduate medical education. She serves as the Program Director of the Stanford Neuromuscular Medicine Fellowship and Associate Director of the Clinical Neurophysiology/EMG Fellowship, with a total of five ACGME-accredited positions. She supervised residents in the weekly neurology resident continuity clinic for many years. She been awarded numerous teaching awards, including the Lysia S. Forno Award for outstanding contributions to resident teaching, and the American Academy of Neurology's A.B. Baker Teacher Recognition Award.

    Dr. Sakamuri completed her undergraduate studies at Rutgers University, where she earned a degree in psychology with Phi Beta Kappa distinction. She completed medical school at Rutgers New Jersey Medical School in Newark, NJ, where she led multiple community service and medical education activities and was elected to the Alpha Omega Alpha and Gold Humanism Honor Societies. She moved to the Bay Area to pursue neurology residency at Stanford and served as Chief Resident in her final year of training. She then completed two years of fellowship at Stanford and the Forbes Norris MDA/ALS Research Center in EMG/Clinical Neurophysiology and Neuromuscular Medicine.

    She is board-certified in Neurology and in Neuromuscular disorders by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN). She is certified in EMG/NCS by the American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine (ABEM), and holds the ABEM Certificate of Added Qualification in Neuromuscular Ultrasound. She is a member of numerous societies, including the Performing Arts Medicine Association.

  • Maria Sakovsky

    Maria Sakovsky

    Assistant Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics

    BioMaria Sakovsky's work focuses on the use of shape adaptation to realize space structures with reconfigurable geometry, stiffness, and even non-mechanical performance (e.g., electromagnetic, optical). Particular focus is placed on the mechanics of thin fiber reinforced composite structures, the interplay between composite material properties and structural geometry, as well as embedded functionality and actuation of lightweight structures. The work has led to applications in deployable space structures, reconfigurable antennas, and soft robotics.

    Maria Sakovsky received her BSc in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Toronto. Following this, she completed her MSc and PhD in Space Engineering at Caltech, where she developed a deployable satellite antenna based on origami concepts utilizing elastomer composites. She concurrently worked with NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory on developing cryogenically rated thin-​ply composite antennas for deep space missions. She was awarded the ETH Zurich Postdoctoral Fellowship in 2018 as well as the DARPA Young Faculty Award in 2024.

  • Khalid Salaheldin, MD

    Khalid Salaheldin, MD

    Clinical Associate Professor, Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

    BioKhalid Salaheldin, MD, holds the position of Clinical Associate Professor and serves as an interventional psychiatrist within the Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University School of Medicine. His expertise lies in the specialized care of individuals who present with early psychosis.

    At Stanford, Dr. Salaheldin's current responsibilities encompass a range of clinical activities, including evaluating patients with early psychosis at the INSPIRE clinic, where is is also part of the expansion team for INSPIRE 360. He provides care on the inpatient psychiatric unit and interventional psychiatry services as well. In addition to his clinical work, he is actively engaged in teaching, conducting research, and fostering collaborative learning among his patients and colleagues.

    His treatment philosophy is a recovery oriented and compassionate approach evaluating vital underlying factors alongside pharmacotherapy & neuromodulatory interventions including: sleep, exercise, nutrition, mindfulness, therapy integration, underlying medical issues, substance use, psychosocial history, and importantly patients’ current relationships (including pets of course!). His approach focuses on meeting patients where they are at in their health journey, aligning treatment with their personal goals, and being actively present in their management.

    Dr. Salaheldin’s research interests include early psychosis interventions, underlying medical causes of psychiatric symptoms, neuromodulation, community/global mental health, spirituality and mental health, novel psychiatric therapeutics, mental health parity & policy, and healthcare worker wellness through minimizing coding and documentation burden.

    Before joining Stanford, Dr. Salaheldin served as the academic chief resident at Northwell Health, where his focus centered on designing a consult liaison service for patients experiencing a first episode of psychosis. This pioneering initiative aimed to provide compassionate support to patients and their families from the moment they arrived at the emergency room, throughout their inpatient stay, and during their transition to the outpatient setting. He hopes to continue this work on a local and global scale.

    “True compassion means not only feeling another's pain, but also being moved to help relieve it. ” —Daniel Goleman

  • Jose Saldivar

    Jose Saldivar

    Leon Sloss, Jr. Professor and Professor, by courtesy, of Iberian and Latin American Cultures

    BioJosé David Saldívar is a scholar of late postcontemporary culture, especially the minoritized literatures of the United States, Latin America, and the transamerican hemisphere, and of border narrative and poetics from the sixteenth century to the present.

    He is the author of The Dialectics of Our America: Genealogy, Cultural Critique, and Literary History (Duke University Press, 1991), Border Matters: Remapping American Cultural Studies (University of California Press, 1997), and Trans-Americanity: Subaltern Modernities, Global Coloniality, and the Cultures of Greater Mexico (Duke University Press, 2012),coeditor (with Monica Hanna and Jennifer Harford Vargas) of Junot Díaz and the Decolonial Imagination (Duke University Press, 2016) coeditor (with Héctor Calderón) of Criticism in the Borderlands (Duke University Press, 1991), and editor of The Rolando Hinojosa Reader (Arte Público Press, 1985).

    Additionally, he has published numerous articles in journals such as Cultural Studies, American Literary History, The Americas Review, Revista Casa de las Américas, Daedalus, Modern Fiction Studies, and The Global South. He has served on the editorial boards of Duke University Press, the University of California Press, and currently serves on the editorial boards of the journals American Literary History, The Global South, Aztlan, and World Knowledges Otherwise. He has received personal research grants from The Ford Foundation, the American Council of Learned Societies, the University of California President's Research Fellowship in the Humanities, the William Rice Kimball Fellowship, Stanford Humanities Center, and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford (invitation for a future visit).

    His teaching is divided evenly between graduate seminars and undergraduate courses, and some of his undergraduate courses are cross-listed in Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity.

    In 2003, he received the Distinguished Achievement Award for Literary and Cultural Criticism from the Western Literature Association; in 2005, he received the Chicano Scholar of the Year Award from the Modern Language Association; in 2007 he received the Sarlo Distinguished Graduate Student Mentoring Award from the University of California, Berkeley; and in 2016, he was the winner of the American Literature Society’s highest honor, the Jay B. Hubbell Medal. The medal is sponsored by the American Literature Society, an allied organization of the Modern Language Association, and is awarded annually to one “scholar whose lifetime of scholarly work has significantly advanced the study of American literature.” . Before coming to Stanford in January 2010, Saldívar was the Class of 1942 Professor of English and Ethnic Studies at the University of California, Berkeley.

  • Ramon Saldivar

    Ramon Saldivar

    Hoagland Family Professor of Humanities and Sciences and Professor of English, of Comparative Literature and, by courtesy, of Iberian and Latin American Cultures

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsMy current research is concerned with the relationships among race, form, genre, representing what Jeffrey T. Nealon has recently term the “post-postmodern.” In the latest version of this research presented at the John-F.-Kennedy-Institut für Nordamerikastudien, Freie Universität Berlin I use Sesshu Foster's "Atomik Aztex" as an example twenty-first century racial imaginaries. Part fantasy, part hallucinatory sur-realism, part muckraking novel in the grand realist protest tradition of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906), part historical novel in the mode of Vassily Grossman’s great Stalinist era masterpiece, Life & Fate (1980) set during the battle of Stalingrad, part ethnographic history about religious, military, and social structure of the pre-Columbian Aztec (Nahua, Mexica) world, part LA noir, and wholly Science Fiction alternative and counterfactual history, it exemplifies many of the criteria of the “post-postmodern.” Moreover, in addition to this range of formal matters, Atomik Aztex is concerned with two other topics:
    •a reconceptualization of the way that race affects the formations of history, and
    •the reshaping of the form of the novel in order to represent that reconceptualization.
    With eighty-two characters populating the story, itself a plotted compendium of at least two radically separate yet intertwined universes of action, in a continually shifting movement from past, present, and future times, Atomik Aztex is a radical experiment in novelistic form. Using the tools of quantitative formalism developed for literary use by the Stanford University Literary Lab, I wish to show how the work of the computational humanities, in conjunction with traditional hermeneutic methods of literary analysis can help us understand the radical turn of contemporary American fiction toward speculative realism.

  • Shima Salehi

    Shima Salehi

    Assistant Professor (Research) of Education

    BioShima Salehi is a Research Assistant Professor at Stanford Graduate School of Education, and the director of IDEAL research lab, the research component of Stanford IDEAL initiative to promote inclusivity, diversity, equity and access in learning communities. Her research focuses on how to use different instructional practices to teach science and engineering more effectively and inclusively. For effective science and engineering education, Dr. Salehi has studied effective scientific problem-solving and developed empirical framework for main problem-solving practices to train students in. Based on these findings, she has designed instructional activities to provide students with explicit opportunities to learn these problem-solving practices. These activities have been implemented in different science and engineering courses. For Inclusive science and engineering, she examines different barriers for equity in STEM education and through what instructional and/or institutional changes they can be addressed. Her recent works focus on what are the underlying mechanisms for demographic performance gaps in STEM college education, and what instructional practices better serve students from different demographic backgrounds. Salehi holds a PhD in Learning Sciences and a PhD minor in Psychology from Stanford University, and received a B.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Iran. She is the founder of KhanAcademyFarsi, a non-profit educational organization which has provided service to Farsi-speaking students, particularly in under-privileged areas.

  • J Kenneth Salisbury, Jr.

    J Kenneth Salisbury, Jr.

    Professor (Research) of Computer Science and of Surgery (Anatomy), Emeritus

    BioSalisbury worked on the development of the Stanford-JPL Robot Hand, the JPL Force Reflecting Hand Controller, the MIT-WAM arm, the PR-2 personal robot and the da Vinci Surgical Robot. His work with haptic interface technology led to the founding of SensAble Technology, producers of the PHANToM haptic interface and software. He also worked on developing telerobotic systems for dexterity enhancement in the operating room. His current research focuses on minimalist force controllable robots, human-machine interaction, cooperative haptics, medical robotics, and surgical simulation.

  • Karim Sallam, MD

    Karim Sallam, MD

    Assistant Professor of Medicine (Cardiovascular Medicine)

    BioKarim Sallam, MD, is trained in Cardiovascular Medicine and Advanced Heart Failure.

  • Alberto Salleo

    Alberto Salleo

    Hong Seh and Vivian W. M. Lim Professor, Professor of Photon Science, and Senior Fellow at the Precourt Institute for Energy

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsNovel materials and processing techniques for large-area and flexible electronic/photonic devices. Polymeric materials for electronics, bioelectronics, and biosensors. Electrochemical devices for neuromorphic computing. Defects and structure/property studies of polymeric semiconductors, nano-structured and amorphous materials in thin films. Advanced characterization techniques for soft matter.

  • Arghavan Salles

    Arghavan Salles

    Clinical Associate Professor, Medicine - Gastroenterology & Hepatology

    BioDr. Salles is a minimally invasive and bariatric surgeon. She completed medical school and residency in general surgery at Stanford prior to completing her fellowship in minimally invasive surgery at Washington University in St. Louis. She stayed on faculty at Washington University for three years prior to moving back to Stanford in 2019.During the pandemic, Dr. Salles has served as a disaster relief physician, caring for patients with COVID in the ICU. Dr. Salles obtained a PhD in education from Stanford University during her residency training, and her research focuses on gender equity, implicit bias, diversity, inclusion, and physician well-being. Her R01 grant from the NIH focuses on sexual harassment. She is a sought-after speaker and has given over 100 national and international invited talks related to gender equity, physician well-being, and weight bias. She currently serves as the Special Advisor for DEI Programs at the Stanford University Department of Medicine where she is a Clinical Associate Professor.

  • Giselle (Ghazal) Salmasi, MD

    Giselle (Ghazal) Salmasi, MD

    Clinical Associate Professor, Medicine - Hematology

    BioDr. Salmasi is a board-certified, fellowship-trained hematologist. She treats patients in the Hematology Program and the Hematologic Cancer Program at Stanford Health Care. Dr. Salmasi is the associate clinical chief for classical hematology. She is also a clinical associate professor in the Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine.

    She treats a wide range of blood disorders and blood cancers. Her clinical/research interests include immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) and warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia (wAIHA). Dr. Salmasi understands that patients need social and emotional support along with medical care. She founded the earliest adolescent and young adult survivorship support groups in Santa Cruz, California, and Toronto, Canada. Dr. Salmasi is also dedicated to training future doctors in providing excellent hematologic care.

    Dr. Salmasi was the medical co-investigator for a national phase 3 clinical trial of endovascular therapy for treating chronic venous thrombosis.

    Her research has appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine, Leukemia & Lymphoma journal and the Transfusion and Apheresis Science journal. Dr. Salmasi’s publications include articles and a chapter about lymphoma. She has also reviewed articles for the Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation journal and the Journal of Clinical Oncology.

    Dr. Salmasi is a member of the American Society of Hematology.

  • Vafi Salmasi

    Vafi Salmasi

    Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine (Adult Pain)

    BioVafi Salmasi, M.D., M.S. is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Division of Pain Medicine atStanford University School of Medicine. He earned his medical degree from Tehran University of Medical Sciences in 2004 and completed hisanesthesiology training at Cleveland Clinic, where he also completed a research fellowship in the Department of Outcomes Research. He subsequently joined Stanford University for fellowship training in Pain Medicine and earned a Master of Science in Clinical Research and Epidemiology from Stanford in 2019.

    Dr. Salmasi's research focuses on integrating pragmatic comparative effectiveness research with clinical care in perioperative and pain medicine, supported by his NIH funding. He is an active member of the neuromodulation team at Stanford Pain Management Center, where he has established and organizes the multidisciplinary team conference for neuromodulation candidates. His clinical expertise encompasses interventional pain management with particular emphasis on neuromodulation techniques including spinal cord stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation; and minimally invasive spine techniques including basivertebral nerve ablation and percutaneous minimally invasive lumbar decompression.

  • Darren Salmi

    Darren Salmi

    Clinical Associate Professor, Pathology

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsCardiovascular pathology, congenital heart disease, autopsy, medical education

  • Joshua Salomon

    Joshua Salomon

    Professor of Health Policy and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies

    BioJoshua Salomon is a Professor of Health Policy, a core faculty member in the Center for Health Policy, and Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. His research focuses on public health policy and priority-setting, within three main substantive areas: (1) modeling patterns and trends in major causes of global mortality and disease burden; (2) evaluation of health interventions and policies; and (3) measurement and valuation of health outcomes.

    Dr. Salomon is an investigator on projects funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institutes of Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, relating to modeling of infectious and chronic diseases and associated intervention strategies; methods for economic evaluation of public health programs; measurement of the global burden of disease; and assessment of the potential impact and cost effectiveness of new health technologies.

    He is Director of the Prevention Policy Modeling Lab, which is a multi-institution research consortium that conducts health and economic modeling relating to infectious disease. Prior to joining the Stanford faculty, Dr. Salomon was Professor of Global Health at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.

    For more information on the Prevention Policy Modeling Lab visit ppml.stanford.edu.

  • Ramzi Salti

    Ramzi Salti

    Advanced Lecturer

    Current Research and Scholarly InterestsAdvanced Lecturer in Arabic at Stanford since 1999. Highly proficient in use of technology to enhance language learning. Active ACTFL Rater. Creator/Host of Arabology radio/podcast, blog and YouTube Channel. Doctorate in Comparative Literature with extensive list of publications. Radio Broadcaster with FCC clearance. Francophone Literature. Arab American Literature. Public Speaker.

  • Gabriela Lila Salvidea

    Gabriela Lila Salvidea

    SLE Lecturer

    BioGabriela Salvidea is a Lecturer for Structured Liberal Education. She earned a B.A. from Whitman College in 2010, majoring in philosophy and minoring in English. She earned her M.A. in English at Stanford University in 2016, and then her Ph.D., also from Stanford English, in 2023.

    Gabriela’s research centers on postwar and contemporary American literatures, which she defines broadly to include certain texts written by academic humanists. She focuses on historicizing the politics of university culture—its research and its pedagogical practices—by studying texts which exist between the cultures of creative and scholarly writing, a kind of writing she treats as distinctive to the 20th and 21st centuries.

    She has done editorial work for Bitch Magazine and, more recently, Commune Magazine and Endnotes Journal. She also, for a time, dabbled in news reporting. Before coming to Stanford, she served as a corps member in Teach for America, teaching for Green Dot Public Schools in Los Angeles. She then taught for the Oakland Unified School District and for the Friends School in Ramallah, Palestine. Before her work in public schools, she was a a social worker who managed a shelter for unhoused women in rural Washington.​

  • Aaron Keith Salyapongse

    Aaron Keith Salyapongse

    Clinical Associate Professor, Orthopaedic Surgery

    BioDr. Salyapongse is a board-certified, fellowship-trained orthopaedic surgeon. He is the medical director of Interventional Services, medical director of Joint Replacement, and chief of Orthopaedics for Stanford Health Care Tri-Valley. He is also a clinical associate professor at Stanford University School of Medicine.

    Dr. Salyapongse performs the full range of orthopaedic surgery procedures to treat injuries and conditions related to the hip and knee. He has extensive training and experience in the diagnosis and use of advanced treatment techniques for disorders of the hip and knee, including meniscus tears, arthritis, avascular necrosis, and post-traumatic injuries.

    Dr. Salyapongse does hundreds of knee and hip replacements annually. His goal with each patient is to help them recover quickly and safely, with durable, long-lasting joint replacements as a result. He specializes in tissuesparing techniques, including an anterior approach to hip replacement.

    Dr. Salyapongse is a certified instructor of anterior hip replacement. He has performed more than 2,000 procedures and traveled nationwide to teach it to other surgeons. Anterior hip replacement offers the potential for faster recovery, as it involves a small incision that presents less of a disruption to the muscles. Dr. Salyapongse also specializes in techniques such as Anterior PATH, or percutaneous assisted total hip replacements.

    For knee replacements, Dr. Salyapongse uses a variety of techniques, including robotic surgery. He also specializes in partial knee replacements for patients who may be experiencing arthritis in a localized area but who might not be ready for a full replacement. Partial replacements enable patients to have a faster recovery and a more natural feeling knee post-surgery.

    Dr. Salyapongse welcomes referrals from specialists as well as primary care physicians. He sees patients at every stage of their care journey, but especially when their situation has progressed beyond interim interventions like physical therapy or injections. He views each of his patients as an individual with a unique set of goals and tailors each treatment plan to fit their specific needs. While Dr. Salyapongse will help patients first explore the alternatives, he may recommend surgery once activities of daily living
    (like sleep, work, or gait pattern) have been impacted.

    In an effort to make outpatient care more accessible, Dr. Salyapongse has helped to pioneer the use of digital technology to prepare patients before, during, and after hip and knee surgery. His passion is to improve patient engagement and thus outcomes by letting patients know what they can expect at every stage of their care journey.

    Dr. Salyapongse has co-authored articles on a variety of topics related to techniques, technologies, and outcomes in joint replacement surgery. His work has appeared in the American Journal of Orthopaedics, Journal of Arthroplasty, Current Sports Medicine Reports, and other publications.

    He has made presentations on hip and knee replacement planning and surgery at meetings such as the American Association of Hip and Knee Surgeons, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, and Western Orthopaedic Association.

    Dr. Salyapongse has won honors for his work, such as a Physician Champion Award for outstanding patient care. He is a member of the American Academy of Hip and Knee Surgeons and the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons.

  • Julia Salzman

    Julia Salzman

    Associate Professor of Biomedical Data Science, of Biochemistry and, by courtesy, of Statistics and of Biology
    On Leave from 09/01/2025 To 06/01/2026

    Current Research and Scholarly Interestsstatistical computational biology focusing on splicing, cancer and microbes

  • Caitlin E. Samples

    Caitlin E. Samples

    Lecturer

    BioCaitlin E. Samples is Lecturer in Spanish at the Stanford Language Center. She holds an MA in Spanish from Baylor University and is presently ABD in Hispanic linguistics at the University of Georgia. Her work centers on second and heritage language acquisition at the interfaces among syntax, morphology, and semantics. Other interests include trends in gender-inclusive language use on social media. Samples' current projects include research on possessive structure use among second-language learners of English and heritage and second-language learners of Spanish, as well as how Peninsular Spanish Twitter users employ gender-inclusive morphemes in their posts.

    Prior to arriving at Stanford's Language Center, Samples taught all levels of first- and second-year Spanish at the University of Georgia. At Stanford, she teaches first- and second-year Spanish, also. Among her teaching interests are language use in Hispanic populations, Hispanic cultural practices, and cultural products as reflections of historical events.

  • Jacinda Sampson

    Jacinda Sampson

    Clinical Professor, Adult Neurology

    BioDr. Jacinda Sampson received her MD and a PhD in biochemistry from University of Alabama at Birmingham, and completed her neurology residency and neurogenetics fellowship at the University of Utah. She served at Columbia University Medical Center prior to joining Stanford University Medical Center in 2015. Her areas of interest include myotonic dystrophies, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and neurogenetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis, hereditary spastic paraparesis, spinocerebellar ataxia, among others. She is interested in clinical trials for treatment of neurogenetic disorders, and in the clinical application of next-generation genomic sequencing to genetic testing.